Second Year Post Basic B. Sc.(Nursing) December – 2022 Sociology

SECTION A

1 Long Essay (any one) 15

(a) Define social change. Explain factors of social change.

Social change refers to the alteration or transformation in the social structures, institutions, behavior patterns, and cultural values over time within a society. It can occur gradually or rapidly and may involve changes in laws, technologies, education systems, family roles, and ways of thinking. Social change is often driven by a combination of factors such as economic developments, technological advancements, and shifts in political ideologies.

Factors of Social Change:

Several factors contribute to social change. These factors can be divided into various categories, such as cultural, demographic, technological, and political.

a) Cultural Factors:

• Beliefs and Values: Changes in societal beliefs, values, and norms can lead to significant social transformations. For example, the shift in attitudes toward gender equality and LGBTQ+ rights.
• Education: Increased access to education leads to greater awareness and understanding, which in turn fosters changes in societal structures, such as the push for equal opportunities and rights.

b) Technological Factors:

• Innovations and Advancements: Technology plays a major role in social change by altering communication, work, and transportation. For example, the internet and social media have revolutionized how people connect, work, and organize movements.
• Industrialization: The shift from agricultural economies to industrial economies has changed the social fabric by creating urbanization, new job opportunities, and changing lifestyles.

c) Demographic Factors:

• Population Growth: Changes in the size, distribution, and composition of populations can lead to social change. A rapidly growing population might lead to increased demand for resources, housing, and jobs, causing social and economic restructuring.
• Migration: Movement of people from rural to urban areas or between countries brings about cultural exchange, diversity, and sometimes social tensions.

d) Economic Factors:

• Economic Development: Changes in the economy, such as the shift from a manufacturing-based economy to a service-based one, can lead to social change by altering employment patterns, income distribution, and social class structures.
• Globalization: Economic globalization connects societies across the world, leading to the exchange of goods, services, and ideas, contributing to cultural and social changes.

e) Political and Legal Factors:

• Government Policies and Legislation: Changes in laws, policies, and governance can bring about social change. For example, the civil rights movement in the U.S. led to legislative changes that transformed societal attitudes towards race.
• Revolutions and Political Movements: Social movements, revolutions, and shifts in political power can cause drastic changes in a society’s structure. For example, the Indian independence movement brought about major social, political, and economic transformations.

f) Environmental Factors:

• Natural Disasters: Events such as earthquakes, floods, and climate change can lead to social change by forcing societies to adapt and rebuild.
• Resource Availability: The availability or depletion of natural resources can lead to social change by affecting economies, lifestyles, and migration patterns.

(b) Define culture. Discuss the difference between culture and civilization.

Culture refers to the shared patterns of behaviors, beliefs, values, norms, language, traditions, and symbols that are passed down from one generation to the next within a society. It encompasses everything that characterizes a society, from its artistic achievements, religion, and language to its customs, moral values, and social norms. Culture gives individuals a sense of identity and belonging.

Key Aspects of Culture:

• Material Culture: Physical objects, such as tools, clothing, buildings, and technology, that are created by a society.
• Non-material Culture: Intangible elements such as language, religion, values, and social norms.
• Cultural Symbols: Items or concepts that carry specific meanings within a society, such as national flags, religious symbols, or language.
• Cultural Transmission: The process by which culture is passed from one generation to another through education, socialization, and communication.

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3. Difference between Culture and Civilization:

Though often used interchangeably, culture and civilization have distinct meanings.

Aspect	Culture	Civilization
Definition	Culture refers to the way of life, including the customs, beliefs, values, and norms that define a society.	Civilization is the advanced stage of human social development, marked by organized structures like governance, economy, and laws.
Scope	It encompasses both material and non-material aspects of a society, such as language, arts, beliefs, and social norms.	Civilization focuses more on the development of complex societal structures, including technology, economy, and political systems.
Origin	Culture is more organic and evolves naturally through interactions within a society.	Civilization is often linked to human progress and organization, such as the rise of cities, governance, and written language.
Focus	It emphasizes social behaviors, traditions, rituals, and moral systems.	It emphasizes advancements in science, technology, infrastructure, and political organization.
Duration	Culture evolves continuously over time and is more resistant to change.	Civilizations can rise and fall, often marked by periods of growth and decline.
Influence	Culture influences people’s daily lives, interactions, and beliefs.	Civilization influences the organization of societies, their economic systems, and their governance.
Example	The culture of Japan includes tea ceremonies, traditional music, and values like respect and honor.	The Roman Empire is an example of a civilization known for its advanced political systems, legal frameworks, and engineering feats.

• Culture represents the underlying patterns of thought, behavior, and belief in a society, while civilization refers to the advanced organizational and structural aspects of a society, including technology, governance, and social institutions.
• Culture is broad and timeless, whereas civilization is more about progress, development, and the infrastructure that supports the organized functioning of a society.

2 Short essay: (any three) 2×3=15

(a) Classification of social groups.

Social groups are fundamental to the structure of society, as they are composed of individuals who interact with each other and share common characteristics. Social groups can be classified into several categories based on size, nature, and purpose.

1. Primary and Secondary Groups:

• Primary Groups: These are small, intimate, and close-knit groups where members engage in face-to-face interaction. Examples include family and close friends. Relationships in primary groups are typically long-lasting and emotionally significant.
• Secondary Groups: These are larger, more impersonal groups where interactions are more formal and goal-oriented. Examples include professional associations, schools, and workplaces. Relationships in secondary groups are usually temporary and based on specific purposes, such as work or education.

2. Formal and Informal Groups:

• Formal Groups: These are organized with specific rules, regulations, and a defined hierarchy. Examples include businesses, government organizations, and military units. Members have defined roles and responsibilities.
• Informal Groups: These are formed spontaneously, with no strict rules or structure. Examples include groups of friends, hobby groups, and online communities. Interaction is based on personal relationships rather than official roles.

3. In-groups and Out-groups:

• In-groups: A social group to which an individual feels they belong and identifies strongly. Members share a sense of loyalty and unity. Examples include one’s own religion, ethnicity, or nationality.
• Out-groups: Groups to which individuals do not belong or may even feel hostility toward. These are often defined in opposition to the in-group. For example, rival sports teams or different social classes.

4. Reference Groups:

• Reference Groups: These groups serve as a standard for individuals to compare themselves, guiding their behavior, attitudes, and values. Examples include role models, professional groups, or social movements.

(b) Juvenile delinquency.

Juvenile delinquency refers to criminal or antisocial behavior committed by individuals under the age of 18. It encompasses a wide range of offenses, from minor infractions like truancy and vandalism to more severe crimes like theft, assault, or drug-related offenses. Juvenile delinquency is a social issue that affects not only the individual but also their families, communities, and society as a whole.

Causes of Juvenile Delinquency:

1. Family Issues: Broken homes, parental neglect, abuse, and lack of supervision can lead to delinquent behavior in children. A dysfunctional family environment can contribute to emotional instability and rebellion.
2. Peer Influence: Juveniles are often influenced by their peers. Association with delinquent peer groups can lead to participation in criminal activities.
3. Socioeconomic Factors: Poverty, lack of access to education, and unemployment can push juveniles toward criminal behavior in search of financial stability or due to frustration with their social circumstances.
4. Substance Abuse: The use of drugs or alcohol can impair judgment and lead to criminal acts or risky behavior.
5. Media Influence: Exposure to violent or aggressive behavior in media, such as TV shows, movies, or video games, can normalize delinquency and encourage imitation.

Prevention and Control:

Efforts to reduce juvenile delinquency include family counseling, educational support, mentoring programs, community engagement, and legal reforms focusing on rehabilitation rather than punishment.

(c) Causes of personal disorganization.

Personal disorganization refers to a state of internal conflict, confusion, or instability within an individual that hinders their ability to function effectively in society. It can manifest in various forms, such as emotional distress, loss of self-identity, or social alienation.

Causes of Personal Disorganization:

1. Family Disruption: Individuals from broken families, abusive relationships, or environments lacking emotional support are more likely to experience personal disorganization. The absence of stable familial bonds can lead to feelings of insecurity and social maladjustment.
2. Social Isolation: Lack of social connections or being excluded from peer groups can lead to loneliness and a breakdown of personal identity. Social support is critical for maintaining personal organization and emotional well-being.
3. Economic Instability: Poverty, unemployment, and financial hardships can create stress and a sense of helplessness, leading to personal disorganization. Economic challenges may result in a loss of self-esteem and social standing.
4. Substance Abuse: Addiction to drugs or alcohol can cause physical, mental, and emotional disorganization. Substance abuse leads to impaired decision-making, unstable behavior, and disrupted relationships.
5. Mental Illness: Disorders such as depression, anxiety, or schizophrenia can lead to personal disorganization by disrupting an individual’s cognitive and emotional processes, affecting their ability to function in society.
6. Cultural Conflict: When individuals struggle to reconcile conflicting cultural values or social norms (e.g., immigration or generational conflicts), they may experience disorganization in their personal identity or sense of belonging.
7. Trauma: Individuals who have experienced trauma, such as abuse, violence, or a natural disaster, may suffer from disorganized thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, leading to personal instability.

(d) Assimilation.

Assimilation is the process by which individuals or groups from one culture gradually adopt the characteristics, norms, and values of another culture, leading to a merging of cultural identities. This process is common in multi-ethnic societies where immigrants or minority groups interact with the dominant culture.

Features of Assimilation:

• Cultural Adaptation: Assimilation involves learning and adopting the language, customs, traditions, and values of the dominant culture. Over time, the original cultural traits of the assimilating group may diminish or blend with the new culture.
• Social Integration: Through assimilation, individuals or groups become fully integrated into the social, economic, and political life of the host society. This includes participation in community activities, the labor market, and political processes.
• Loss of Original Identity: In some cases, assimilation can lead to the loss of one’s original cultural identity as individuals adopt the dominant culture’s norms and values. This can result in a weakening of ethnic or cultural distinctiveness.

Types of Assimilation:

1. Cultural Assimilation: When individuals or groups adopt the cultural traits of another group. This may involve language acquisition, adopting dress codes, or conforming to social customs.
2. Structural Assimilation: Occurs when individuals from different cultural backgrounds become integrated into the institutions and structures of society, such as schools, workplaces, and neighborhoods.
3. Psychological Assimilation: Involves the internalization of the values and norms of the dominant culture, leading to changes in identity, attitudes, and social behavior.

Factors Influencing Assimilation:

• Education: Access to education in the dominant culture can accelerate the assimilation process by teaching language, history, and values.
• Social Interaction: Frequent interaction with members of the dominant culture, such as through marriage, work, or friendship, can facilitate assimilation.
• Government Policies: Policies that promote integration and equal opportunities can foster assimilation, while discriminatory policies may hinder it.

Difference between Assimilation and Acculturation:

• Assimilation refers to the process by which a minority group fully adopts the culture of the dominant group, often leading to the loss of the original cultural identity.
• Acculturation, on the other hand, involves the exchange of cultural traits between groups, where each group retains some of its original cultural identity while adapting to the new culture.

Impact of Assimilation:

Assimilation can lead to greater social harmony and unity within a society, but it can also cause challenges, such as the loss of cultural diversity and heritage. Balancing the preservation of cultural identity with the need for integration is crucial for a healthy multicultural society.

3 Short answers: (any four)4×2=8

(a) Minority groups.

Minority groups are populations within a society that are distinct from the dominant group based on characteristics such as race, ethnicity, religion, language, or cultural practices. They often have less power or representation in political, economic, and social institutions compared to the dominant group. Minority status can also be determined by factors such as disability or sexual orientation. Minority groups may face discrimination, marginalization, and social inequalities, and they often advocate for equal rights and protection under the law.

Examples:

• Ethnic minorities (e.g., African Americans in the U.S.)
• Religious minorities (e.g., Muslims in India)
• Linguistic minorities (e.g., French speakers in Canada)
• Sexual minorities (e.g., LGBTQ+ communities)

(b) List the types of conflict

Conflict refers to a disagreement or clash between individuals or groups due to differing opinions, needs, or interests. There are several types of conflict:

1. Interpersonal Conflict: Disagreement between two or more individuals due to personality clashes, differing viewpoints, or misunderstandings.
2. Intragroup Conflict: Occurs within a group when members have conflicting goals, roles, or ideas.
3. Intergroup Conflict: Arises between different groups or teams within an organization or society, often due to competition, differing values, or resource allocation.
4. International Conflict: Conflict between nations, often leading to diplomatic tensions, trade disputes, or warfare.
5. Ethnic and Racial Conflict: Conflicts between different ethnic or racial groups due to historical animosities, discrimination, or inequality.
6. Class Conflict: Tension between social classes, often related to economic inequalities, social status, or access to resources.
7. Religious Conflict: Conflicts based on differences in religious beliefs or practices, often leading to tension or violence between groups.

(E) Child abuse

Child abuse refers to any form of physical, emotional, or sexual harm inflicted upon a child by a parent, caregiver, or other individuals. It can also include neglect, where a child’s basic needs for food, shelter, education, and medical care are not met.

Types of Child Abuse:

1. Physical Abuse: Intentional use of force that results in injury to the child, such as hitting, shaking, or burning.
2. Emotional Abuse: Ongoing emotional harm, such as verbal abuse, constant criticism, rejection, or humiliation, that damages a child’s mental and emotional well-being.
3. Sexual Abuse: Involves forcing or enticing a child to engage in sexual activities, whether or not the child understands what is happening.
4. Neglect: Failing to meet a child’s basic needs for health, education, emotional development, and physical well-being.

Signs of Child Abuse:

• Unexplained injuries or bruises.
• Withdrawal, fear, or aggressive behavior.
• Poor hygiene, malnutrition, or untreated medical conditions.
• Knowledge of sexual activities inappropriate for the child’s age.

Prevention and Intervention:

Preventing child abuse requires awareness, education, and early intervention. Reporting suspected abuse to authorities, providing family support services, and educating caregivers on healthy parenting are critical steps in reducing child abuse.

SECTION B

4 Write in detail (any one) 12

(a) Explain the various legislations on Indian marriage and family.

ndia has a diverse cultural and religious landscape, which is reflected in the different laws governing marriage and family. These laws aim to regulate marital relationships, the rights and responsibilities of spouses, and family structures. Here are the key legislations on marriage and family in India:

1. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955:

• Applicability: This law governs marriages among Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs.
• Key Provisions:
  • Monogamy: A Hindu can marry only one spouse at a time.
  • Conditions for Marriage: Both parties must be of sound mind, have attained the legal age of marriage (18 for women, 21 for men), and should not be within prohibited degrees of relationship unless allowed by custom.
  • Divorce: The Act provides grounds for divorce, such as cruelty, desertion, adultery, and mutual consent.
  • Maintenance and Alimony: Provisions for maintenance and financial support for a spouse and children post-divorce.

2. The Special Marriage Act, 1954:

• Applicability: This law allows individuals of different religions or castes to marry in a civil ceremony. It also applies to Indians living abroad.
• Key Provisions:
  • Civil Marriage: It enables people from different religious backgrounds to marry without converting to another religion.
  • Registration of Marriage: Marriages under this Act must be registered, and the notice of intended marriage must be given in writing to the Marriage Registrar.
  • Divorce and Alimony: Similar to the Hindu Marriage Act, it provides for divorce and maintenance.

3. The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937:

• Applicability: Governs marriage, divorce, maintenance, and inheritance among Muslims in India.
• Key Provisions:
  • Marriage: A Muslim man can have up to four wives at a time, but certain conditions apply.
  • Divorce: The concept of “Talaq” is a recognized form of divorce, although the Supreme Court of India has ruled “Triple Talaq” unconstitutional.
  • Maintenance: The husband is responsible for providing “Mehr” (a mandatory payment to the wife) and maintenance after divorce (though this was modified by the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986).

4. The Christian Marriage Act, 1872:

• Applicability: Governs marriages among Christians in India.
• Key Provisions:
  • Ceremonial and Civil Marriage: Christian marriages must be solemnized by a licensed Minister or Marriage Registrar.
  • Age: The legal age of marriage for women is 18 and for men, it is 21.
  • Divorce: The Indian Divorce Act, 1869 provides grounds for divorce among Christians, such as adultery, desertion, and cruelty.

5. The Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act, 1936:

• Applicability: Governs marriages and divorces among Parsis in India.
• Key Provisions:
  • Monogamy: Parsis can have only one spouse at a time.
  • Divorce: Grounds for divorce include adultery, cruelty, and desertion.
  • Nullity of Marriage: Marriages can be annulled if either party is incapable of procreation or if the marriage was forced.

6. The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015:

• Applicability: Addresses adoption and care of children in India.
• Key Provisions:
  • Adoption: This Act allows all persons, regardless of religion, to adopt children under a unified law.

(b) Discuss the concept of poverty. Explain in detail the various programmes to curb the poverty.

Concept of Poverty:

Poverty refers to a condition where individuals or communities lack the financial resources and essentials to achieve a minimum standard of living. It is often measured in terms of income, consumption, and access to basic services like healthcare, education, and housing. Poverty can be absolute (where basic needs cannot be met) or relative (where individuals are poorer compared to others in their society).

Dimensions of Poverty:

1. Economic Poverty: Insufficient income to meet basic needs like food, shelter, and clothing.
2. Social Poverty: Lack of access to education, healthcare, and other social services.
3. Cultural Poverty: Social exclusion or marginalization from mainstream society.
4. Political Poverty: Limited participation in decision-making processes or governance.

Programmes to Curb Poverty in India:

India has implemented various schemes and programmes to reduce poverty and improve the standard of living for its population. These initiatives are designed to address economic inequalities, social welfare, and access to services.

1. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA):

• Launched in 2005, MGNREGA guarantees at least 100 days of wage employment to rural households annually.
• It aims to reduce rural poverty by providing employment opportunities, which leads to income generation and improved infrastructure in rural areas.

2. Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY):

• Launched in 2014, PMJDY aims to provide affordable access to financial services like banking, credit, and insurance to all citizens, particularly the poor.
• It helps reduce poverty by promoting financial inclusion and enabling poor families to save money and access credit.

3. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY):

• Launched in 2015, PMAY aims to provide affordable housing to the urban and rural poor by 2022.
• The scheme offers subsidies on loans for house construction and renovation, thus providing a safe and permanent shelter to the economically weaker sections.

4. National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013:

• This law ensures the right to food to approximately two-thirds of India’s population by providing subsidized food grains through the Public Distribution System (PDS).
• It aims to curb hunger and malnutrition, which are direct consequences of poverty.

5. Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana (PMGKY):

• Launched in 2016, this scheme was aimed at unearthing black money and offering a chance to the holders to declare it under certain conditions.
• The proceeds were aimed at funding welfare schemes to benefit the poor.

6. Deen Dayal Antyodaya Yojana (DAY):

• This scheme is focused on alleviating urban and rural poverty through skill development and employment generation.
• DAY-NRLM (National Rural Livelihood Mission) focuses on rural employment, while DAY-NULM (National Urban Livelihood Mission) focuses on urban employment and housing.

7. Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS):

• Launched in 1975, ICDS provides nutrition, education, and healthcare services to children under 6 years of age, as well as to pregnant and lactating women in poor families.
• It addresses poverty by improving child health and development, which are critical for breaking the cycle of poverty.

8. Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY):

• Launched in 2015, PMKVY aims to impart industry-relevant skill training to the youth, especially from economically weaker sections, to enhance their employability.
• The scheme helps reduce poverty by promoting skill development and providing job opportunities.

9. National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP):

• This programme provides financial assistance to the elderly, widows, and disabled persons belonging to below-poverty-line (BPL) families.
• It aims to provide a social safety net for the most vulnerable sections of society.

10. Mid-Day Meal Scheme:

• This programme provides free meals to schoolchildren in government and government-aided schools, reducing child hunger and encouraging school attendance.
• The scheme helps combat poverty by improving nutrition and promoting education among children from low-income families.

5 Short note: (any three) 3×5=15

(A) Explain the characteristics of primary group.

A primary group is a small, close-knit group of individuals who share strong, intimate, and personal relationships. This group is crucial for socialization, emotional support, and shaping an individual’s identity.

1. Small Size: Primary groups typically consist of a small number of individuals, such as family or close friends, which fosters intimacy and personal interactions.
2. Personal Relationships: The relationships in primary groups are deep and meaningful, based on emotional bonds, love, and affection.
3. Face-to-Face Interaction: Members of primary groups interact frequently in person, allowing for immediate and direct communication.
4. Long-lasting Bonds: Relationships in primary groups are usually enduring, such as lifelong friendships or family ties.
5. Emotional Support: Primary groups provide emotional comfort, social support, and security to their members.
6. Informal Structure: Unlike formal groups, primary groups have little to no hierarchy or formal rules governing their interactions.

b) Discuss national population policy.

The National Population Policy (NPP) of India aims to stabilize the population by promoting family planning, improving healthcare services, and addressing socio-economic disparities. The NPP 2000 is the most recent policy, which envisions achieving population stabilization by 2045.

Key Objectives of NPP 2000:

1. Immediate Objectives: Reduce infant mortality rate (IMR) to below 30 per 1,000 live births, achieve universal immunization, and address maternal mortality.
2. Medium-term Objectives: Provide universal access to contraception and reproductive healthcare services, and reduce fertility rates to replacement levels (total fertility rate of 2.1 children per woman).
3. Long-term Objective: Achieve population stabilization by 2045, ensuring a balance between resources and population.

Strategies:

• Family Planning Programs: Promote the use of contraceptives and encourage voluntary sterilization.
• Reproductive Health Services: Improve access to prenatal, postnatal, and child healthcare services.
• Education and Empowerment: Empower women through education and employment, as better-educated women tend to have fewer children.
• Incentives and Disincentives: Financial incentives for adopting family planning measures and disincentives for high fertility rates.

C) Explain the merits and demerits of caste system.

The caste system is a traditional social stratification system prevalent in India, where individuals are grouped based on hereditary occupation and social status. While the system has historical roots and cultural significance, it has both positive and negative aspects.

Merits:

1. Social Identity and Stability: The caste system provided individuals with a clear social identity and role, offering stability within society.
2. Division of Labor: It helped organize society based on different occupational roles, ensuring that various tasks, such as agriculture, trade, and religious duties, were fulfilled.
3. Cultural Preservation: The system allowed for the preservation of traditional customs, religious practices, and family values within caste groups.

Demerits:

1. Social Inequality: The caste system led to rigid social hierarchies, with higher castes enjoying privileges and lower castes facing discrimination and marginalization.
2. Untouchability: The practice of untouchability, where certain castes were considered “impure,” resulted in extreme social exclusion and oppression of Dalits (formerly “untouchables”).
3. Lack of Social Mobility: The caste system restricted individuals to their birth caste, making it difficult to improve social status or pursue occupations outside their assigned caste.
4. Discrimination and Segregation: Caste-based discrimination affected access to education, employment, and other opportunities, perpetuating poverty and social injustice.

(d) Discuss the solution for sexual harassment.

Sexual harassment is a serious violation of human rights, affecting the dignity, safety, and well-being of individuals, particularly in workplaces, educational institutions, and public spaces. Addressing and preventing sexual harassment requires a comprehensive approach involving legal, organizational, and societal measures.

1. Legal Framework:

• Laws and Policies: Strengthen and enforce laws that protect against sexual harassment, such as the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act, 2013 in India.
• Strict Penalties: Implement strict penalties for perpetrators of sexual harassment to create a deterrent effect.

2. Organizational Measures:

• Internal Committees: All organizations should establish Internal Complaints Committees (ICCs) to handle complaints of sexual harassment confidentially and fairly.
• Clear Policies: Develop and publicize zero-tolerance policies for sexual harassment in the workplace, outlining reporting mechanisms and consequences for offenders.
• Training and Awareness: Conduct regular awareness programs and training for employees and staff about what constitutes sexual harassment and how to prevent and report it.

3. Societal and Cultural Change:

• Promoting Gender Equality: Encourage gender-sensitive education and promote a culture of respect and equality in homes, schools, and workplaces.
• Breaking Silence and Stigma: Support victims of sexual harassment in speaking up without fear of judgment or retaliation, and ensure that societal attitudes do not shame or blame the victim.
• Support Systems: Establish counseling and support services for victims of harassment, including legal aid, psychological counseling, and peer support.

6 Define: (any five) 5×2=10

(a) Define race.

Race is a socially constructed category used to classify humans based on physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features, and hair type. It has no biological basis but is often used to differentiate between groups based on perceived hereditary traits, leading to social divisions and, in some cases, discrimination.

(b) Define role.

A role refers to the expected behavior and responsibilities associated with a particular social status or position in society. Roles define how individuals are supposed to act based on their position, such as the role of a teacher, parent, or employee.

(c) Differentiate between folkways and mores

Folkways: These are informal social norms or customary behaviors that guide everyday interactions but are not strictly enforced. Violating folkways leads to mild social disapproval (e.g., eating with the wrong utensils).Mores: These are deeply held norms that are strongly enforced and related to moral standards. Violating mores results in significant social sanctions, as they are considered essential to societal well-being (e.g., laws against theft or murder).

d) Define ascribed status

Ascribed status refers to a social position or rank assigned to an individual at birth, based on factors such as race, gender, ethnicity, or family background. It is not earned or chosen but rather inherited and largely unchangeable.

(e) Cultural diffusion

Cultural diffusion is the process by which cultural elements (such as beliefs, customs, technologies, or practices) spread from one society or cultural group to another, either through direct contact, migration, trade, or mass media.

(f) Cultural lag

Cultural lag refers to the period of adjustment when the non-material culture (values, norms, laws) struggles to catch up with technological advancements or changes in the material culture. This lag can cause social issues as societies adapt to new innovations.

(g) Anthropology

Anthropology is the scientific study of humans, their origins, behavior, development, and cultural practices across time and space. It covers various aspects of human life, including social structures, languages, beliefs, and biological evolution.

(e) Social process

Social process refers to the patterns of interaction and relationships that develop among individuals and groups within a society. It encompasses various forms of social interactions, such as cooperation, competition, conflict, socialization, and adaptation, that contribute to societal development.

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