• Destruction of Micro-organisms

Destruction of Microorganisms

The destruction of microorganisms is critical in various fields, including healthcare, food industry, and environmental control, to prevent infections, spoilage, and contamination. This process is achieved through physical, chemical, and biological methods, depending on the level of microbial control required.

---

Levels of Microbial Control

1. Sterilization:
   • Complete destruction or removal of all microorganisms, including spores.
   • Methods: Autoclaving, dry heat, chemical sterilants.
2. Disinfection:
   • Destruction of most pathogens but not necessarily spores.
   • Methods: Chemical disinfectants like alcohol, chlorine.
3. Antisepsis:
   • Destruction or inhibition of microorganisms on living tissues.
   • Methods: Antiseptics like iodine, chlorhexidine.
4. Sanitization:
   • Reduction of microbial populations to safe levels.
   • Methods: Washing with detergents, heat treatment.
5. Decontamination:
   • Removal of microbial contamination to make an item safe for handling.

---

Physical Methods of Microbial Destruction

1. Heat

• Moist Heat:
  • Autoclaving: 121°C at 15 psi for 15–20 minutes; kills all microorganisms, including spores.
  • Boiling: 100°C for 10–30 minutes; effective against vegetative cells but not spores.
  • Pasteurization:
    • LTLT: 63°C for 30 minutes.
    • HTST: 72°C for 15 seconds.
• Dry Heat:
  • Incineration: Burning materials to ash.
  • Hot Air Oven: 160–170°C for 2 hours; used for glassware and instruments.

2. Filtration

• Removes microorganisms from liquids and air.
• Types:
  • Membrane Filters: Pore size 0.22 µm for bacteria.
  • HEPA Filters: Removes particles >0.3 µm in air.

3. Radiation

• Ionizing Radiation:
  • X-rays, gamma rays; destroys DNA and other cellular components.
  • Used for sterilizing medical equipment and food.
• Non-Ionizing Radiation:
  • UV light (254 nm); damages DNA by forming thymine dimers.
  • Used for surface and air disinfection.

4. Desiccation

• Removes water, inhibiting microbial growth.
• Effective against most pathogens but not all spores.

5. Low Temperatures

• Refrigeration and freezing slow microbial metabolism but do not kill all microorganisms.

---

Chemical Methods of Microbial Destruction

1. Alcohols

• Examples: Ethanol (70%), Isopropanol (70%).
• Mode of Action: Denatures proteins and disrupts cell membranes.
• Effective against vegetative bacteria, fungi, and enveloped viruses.

2. Halogens

• Examples: Chlorine, Iodine.
• Mode of Action: Oxidizes cellular components, leading to microbial death.
• Applications: Water disinfection, antiseptics.

3. Phenolics

• Examples: Phenol, Triclosan.
• Mode of Action: Denatures proteins and disrupts cell membranes.
• Applications: Disinfecting surfaces and instruments.

4. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (Quats)

• Examples: Benzalkonium chloride.
• Mode of Action: Disrupts cell membranes.
• Applications: Surface disinfectants.

5. Hydrogen Peroxide

• Mode of Action: Produces reactive oxygen species (ROS) that damage cellular components.
• Applications: Wound cleaning, surface disinfection.

6. Aldehydes

• Examples: Formaldehyde, Glutaraldehyde.
• Mode of Action: Cross-links proteins and nucleic acids.
• Applications: Sterilizing medical instruments.

7. Gaseous Agents

• Examples: Ethylene oxide, Ozone.
• Mode of Action: Alkylation of proteins and DNA.
• Applications: Sterilizing heat-sensitive equipment.

---

Biological Methods of Microbial Destruction

• Bacteriophages:
  • Viruses that infect and kill bacteria.
  • Used in phage therapy and food safety.
• Antimicrobial Peptides:
  • Disrupt bacterial cell membranes.
• Enzymes:
  • Examples: Lysozyme (destroys bacterial cell walls).

---

Factors Influencing Microbial Destruction

1. Type of Microorganism:
   • Spores and mycobacteria are more resistant than vegetative bacteria.
2. Number of Microorganisms:
   • Larger populations require more time for effective destruction.
3. Environmental Conditions:
   • pH, temperature, and presence of organic matter can affect the efficacy of sterilants and disinfectants.
4. Concentration of Agents:
   • Higher concentrations generally increase effectiveness.
5. Exposure Time:
   • Longer exposure ensures better microbial control.

---

Applications of Microbial Destruction

1. Healthcare:
   • Sterilization of surgical instruments, disinfection of hospital surfaces.
2. Food Industry:
   • Pasteurization, irradiation to prevent spoilage.
3. Water Treatment:
   • Chlorination and UV treatment to ensure safe drinking water.
4. Pharmaceuticals:
   • Sterile production environments.

• Sterilization and disinfection

Sterilization and Disinfection in Microbiology

Sterilization and disinfection are critical processes in microbiology for controlling microbial contamination and ensuring safe environments in healthcare, research, and industrial settings.

---

1. Sterilization

Definition

• The process of completely eliminating or killing all forms of microorganisms, including spores, from an object or surface.

Methods of Sterilization

Sterilization can be achieved using physical or chemical methods:

---

A. Physical Methods

1. Heat Sterilization
   • Moist Heat:
     • Autoclaving: Steam under pressure at 121°C for 15–20 minutes (15 psi); kills all microorganisms, including spores.
       • Used for: Surgical instruments, culture media.
     • Boiling: 100°C for 10–30 minutes; effective against vegetative cells but not spores.
     • Pasteurization:
       • LTLT (Low-Temperature Long-Time): 63°C for 30 minutes.
       • HTST (High-Temperature Short-Time): 72°C for 15 seconds.
       • UHT (Ultra-High Temperature): 135°C for a few seconds.
       • Used for: Milk and beverages.
   • Dry Heat:
     • Hot Air Oven: 160–170°C for 2 hours; kills by oxidation.
       • Used for: Glassware, metal instruments.
     • Incineration: Complete destruction by burning.
       • Used for: Biomedical waste.
2. Filtration
   • Removes microorganisms from liquids and air.
   • Types:
     • Membrane Filters: Pore size 0.22 µm for bacteria.
     • HEPA Filters: Remove particles >0.3 µm from air.
   • Used for: Heat-sensitive liquids (e.g., IV fluids, antibiotics).
3. Radiation
   • Ionizing Radiation:
     • Gamma rays, X-rays; breaks DNA strands.
     • Used for: Sterilizing medical equipment, food.
   • Non-Ionizing Radiation:
     • UV light (254 nm); damages DNA by forming thymine dimers.
     • Used for: Disinfecting surfaces, air.
4. Gas Sterilization
   • Examples: Ethylene oxide, formaldehyde gas.
   • Used for: Heat-sensitive instruments (e.g., endoscopes).

---

B. Chemical Methods

• Aldehydes:
  • Examples: Formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde.
  • Used for: Heat-sensitive equipment.
• Oxidizing Agents:
  • Examples: Hydrogen peroxide, peracetic acid.
  • Used for: Instruments, surfaces.

---

Applications of Sterilization

• Healthcare: Surgical instruments, culture media, and sterile supplies.
• Food Industry: Canning, pasteurization.
• Pharmaceuticals: Sterile production of drugs and vaccines.

---

2. Disinfection

Definition

• The process of reducing or eliminating most microorganisms, except for bacterial spores, from surfaces or objects.

Levels of Disinfection

1. High-Level Disinfection:
   • Kills all microorganisms except high numbers of spores.
   • Examples: Glutaraldehyde, hydrogen peroxide.
   • Used for: Endoscopes, respiratory equipment.
2. Intermediate-Level Disinfection:
   • Kills vegetative bacteria, fungi, and most viruses.
   • Examples: Alcohols, iodine.
   • Used for: Thermometers, stethoscopes.
3. Low-Level Disinfection:
   • Kills most vegetative bacteria and some viruses.
   • Examples: Quaternary ammonium compounds.
   • Used for: Floors, walls, furniture.

---

Methods of Disinfection

1. Chemical Disinfectants
   • Alcohols:
     • Examples: Ethanol (70%), isopropanol (70%).
     • Action: Denatures proteins and disrupts membranes.
     • Used for: Skin antisepsis, surfaces.
   • Halogens:
     • Examples: Chlorine, iodine.
     • Action: Oxidizes cellular components.
     • Used for: Water disinfection, wound cleaning.
   • Phenolics:
     • Examples: Phenol, triclosan.
     • Action: Disrupts membranes and denatures proteins.
     • Used for: Hospital surfaces.
   • Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (Quats):
     • Examples: Benzalkonium chloride.
     • Action: Disrupts membranes.
     • Used for: Floors, walls.
   • Oxidizing Agents:
     • Examples: Hydrogen peroxide.
     • Action: Produces reactive oxygen species (ROS).
     • Used for: Surfaces, instruments.
2. Physical Disinfection
   • Boiling: Kills most vegetative cells (100°C for 10–30 minutes).
   • UV Radiation: Damages DNA; effective for air and surfaces.

---

Applications of Disinfection

• Healthcare: Cleaning hospital surfaces, surgical areas.
• Food Industry: Sanitizing equipment.
• Water Treatment: Chlorination for potable water.

---

Comparison: Sterilization vs. Disinfection

Aspect	Sterilization	Disinfection
Objective	Destroys all microorganisms, including spores.	Eliminates most microorganisms, excluding spores.
Methods	Autoclaving, filtration, radiation.	Chemical disinfectants, boiling, UV light.
Applications	Surgical instruments, culture media.	Floors, walls, equipment surfaces.
Effectiveness	Complete microbial destruction.	Partial microbial reduction.

---

Factors Affecting Sterilization and Disinfection

1. Type of Microorganism:
   • Spores and mycobacteria are more resistant.
2. Number of Microorganisms:
   • Higher loads require longer exposure.
3. Environment:
   • Presence of organic matter can reduce effectiveness.
4. Agent Concentration:
   • Higher concentrations improve efficacy.
5. Contact Time:
   • Sufficient time ensures thorough microbial control.

---

Significance in Microbiology

1. Infection Control:
   • Prevents healthcare-associated infections (HAIs).
2. Safety:
   • Ensures sterile environments for surgeries and laboratory work.
3. Food Safety:
   • Extends shelf life and ensures consumer safety.
4. Research:
   • Prevents contamination in microbiological studies.

• Chemotherapy and antibiotics

Chemotherapy and Antibiotics in Microbiology

Chemotherapy and antibiotics are vital components of microbiology, focusing on the use of chemical agents to treat infections and diseases caused by microorganisms. This area bridges microbiology and medicine, enabling targeted treatment while minimizing harm to the host.

---

1. Chemotherapy in Microbiology

Definition

• Chemotherapy is the use of chemical agents (chemotherapeutic agents) to kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms or cancer cells without damaging the host.

Principles of Chemotherapy

1. Selective Toxicity:
   • The ability of a drug to target microorganisms without harming host cells.
2. Therapeutic Index:
   • Ratio of toxic dose to therapeutic dose; a higher index indicates safer drugs.
3. Bactericidal vs. Bacteriostatic:
   • Bactericidal: Kills bacteria (e.g., penicillin).
   • Bacteriostatic: Inhibits bacterial growth (e.g., tetracyclines).

Examples of Chemotherapeutic Agents

1. Antibiotics:
   • Derived from microorganisms; used against bacteria.
2. Antiviral Agents:
   • Example: Acyclovir (for herpes infections).
3. Antifungal Agents:
   • Example: Amphotericin B (for systemic fungal infections).
4. Antiparasitic Agents:
   • Example: Chloroquine (for malaria).

---

2. Antibiotics in Microbiology

Definition

• Antibiotics are chemical substances produced by microorganisms (or synthetically) that inhibit or kill other microorganisms.

---

Classification of Antibiotics

1. Based on Spectrum of Activity:
   • Narrow-Spectrum:
     • Effective against specific bacteria (e.g., penicillin for Gram-positive bacteria).
   • Broad-Spectrum:
     • Effective against a wide range of bacteria (e.g., tetracycline).
2. Based on Mode of Action:
   • Inhibition of Cell Wall Synthesis:
     • Examples: Penicillins, cephalosporins.
     • Mechanism: Interfere with peptidoglycan synthesis, leading to cell lysis.
   • Disruption of Cell Membrane:
     • Examples: Polymyxins.
     • Mechanism: Disrupt membrane integrity, causing leakage.
   • Inhibition of Protein Synthesis:
     • Examples: Tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, macrolides.
     • Mechanism: Bind to ribosomal subunits, preventing translation.
   • Inhibition of Nucleic Acid Synthesis:
     • Examples: Rifampin (RNA synthesis), fluoroquinolones (DNA synthesis).
     • Mechanism: Interfere with replication or transcription.
   • Inhibition of Metabolic Pathways:
     • Examples: Sulfonamides, trimethoprim.
     • Mechanism: Block folic acid synthesis.
3. Based on Chemical Structure:
   • Beta-Lactams: Penicillins, cephalosporins.
   • Aminoglycosides: Gentamicin, streptomycin.
   • Tetracyclines: Doxycycline.
   • Macrolides: Erythromycin, azithromycin.

---

Mechanisms of Resistance

Microorganisms can develop resistance to antibiotics through various mechanisms:

1. Enzymatic Inactivation:
   • Example: Beta-lactamase enzymes inactivate penicillins.
2. Alteration of Target Sites:
   • Example: Mutation in ribosomal proteins prevents antibiotic binding.
3. Efflux Pumps:
   • Actively pump antibiotics out of the cell.
4. Reduced Permeability:
   • Alteration of membrane porins reduces drug entry.
5. Bypassing Metabolic Pathways:
   • Example: Alternate pathways for folic acid synthesis.

---

Clinical Applications

1. Empirical Therapy:
   • Use of broad-spectrum antibiotics before specific pathogens are identified.
2. Targeted Therapy:
   • Based on culture and sensitivity results.
3. Prophylaxis:
   • Preventing infections (e.g., pre-surgical antibiotics).

---

3. Differences Between Chemotherapy and Antibiotics

Aspect	Chemotherapy	Antibiotics
Definition	Use of chemical agents to treat infections or diseases.	Subset of chemotherapeutic agents targeting bacteria.
Targets	Bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, cancer cells.	Primarily bacteria.
Source	Synthetic or natural.	Naturally derived or synthetic.
Examples	Acyclovir, amphotericin B, chloroquine.	Penicillin, tetracycline, rifampin.

---

4. Side Effects of Chemotherapeutic Agents and Antibiotics

1. Toxicity:
   • Hepatotoxicity (e.g., isoniazid), nephrotoxicity (e.g., aminoglycosides).
2. Allergic Reactions:
   • Hypersensitivity to penicillin.
3. Superinfections:
   • Overgrowth of resistant pathogens (e.g., Clostridioides difficile).
4. Gastrointestinal Disturbances:
   • Nausea, diarrhea due to altered gut flora.

---

5. Emerging Challenges

1. Antimicrobial Resistance:
   • Overuse and misuse of antibiotics lead to resistant strains like MRSA, VRSA, and MDR-TB.
2. Development of New Drugs:
   • Decline in new antibiotic discovery.

---

6. Future Directions

1. Combination Therapy:
   • Using multiple agents to reduce resistance (e.g., beta-lactams with beta-lactamase inhibitors).
2. Phage Therapy:
   • Using bacteriophages to target resistant bacteria.
3. Nanotechnology:
   • Targeted drug delivery using nanoparticles.

• Effects of heat and cold

Effects of Heat and Cold in Microbiology

The application of heat and cold profoundly affects microorganisms, influencing their growth, survival, and metabolic activities. Understanding these effects is essential for sterilization, preservation, and microbial control in various fields such as medicine, food safety, and microbiology research.

---

Effects of Heat on Microorganisms

1. Mechanisms of Heat Action

• Heat kills microorganisms by denaturing proteins, disrupting cell membranes, and damaging nucleic acids.
• Enzymes and structural proteins lose their function due to irreversible denaturation.

2. Types of Heat Applications

A. Moist Heat

• More effective than dry heat due to better heat penetration.
• Kills microorganisms through coagulation of proteins.
• Methods:
  1. Boiling:
     • Kills vegetative cells but not all spores.
     • Example: Boiling water at 100°C for 10–30 minutes.
  2. Autoclaving:
     • Steam under pressure (121°C, 15 psi, 15–20 minutes).
     • Effective against all microorganisms, including spores.
     • Used for: Sterilization of surgical instruments, culture media.
  3. Pasteurization:
     • Kills pathogens without altering food quality.
     • Methods:
       • LTLT: 63°C for 30 minutes.
       • HTST: 72°C for 15 seconds.
       • UHT: 135°C for a few seconds.
     • Used for: Milk, juices.

B. Dry Heat

• Kills microorganisms through oxidation and dehydration.
• Methods:
  1. Hot Air Oven:
     • 160–170°C for 2 hours.
     • Used for: Glassware, powders, metal instruments.
  2. Incineration:
     • Complete destruction by burning.
     • Used for: Disposal of biomedical waste.

3. Effects of Heat on Microbial Populations

• Vegetative Cells:
  • Easily destroyed at lower temperatures (e.g., 60–80°C for 5–10 minutes).
• Spores:
  • Highly heat-resistant; require higher temperatures and longer exposure (e.g., autoclaving).
• Thermophiles:
  • Thrive at higher temperatures (e.g., 45–70°C).
• Mesophiles and Psychrophiles:
  • Killed or inactivated by heat.

Applications of Heat

• Sterilization: Ensures aseptic conditions in healthcare and laboratories.
• Food Preservation: Pasteurization prevents spoilage and kills pathogens.

---

Effects of Cold on Microorganisms

1. Mechanisms of Cold Action

• Cold temperatures slow or inhibit microbial metabolism and growth by:
  • Reducing enzyme activity.
  • Increasing viscosity of the cytoplasm.
  • Limiting water availability due to freezing.

2. Effects of Cold Temperatures

A. Refrigeration (0–4°C)

• Slows microbial growth and reproduction.
• Psychrotrophs and psychrophiles can grow at these temperatures.
• Example: Listeria monocytogenes grows in refrigerated foods.
• Used for: Short-term food preservation.

B. Freezing (<0°C)

• Causes ice crystal formation, damaging cell membranes and organelles.
• Dormancy: Most microorganisms become inactive but are not killed.
• Example:
  • Spores and some bacteria (e.g., Salmonella) survive freezing.
• Used for: Long-term preservation of food and microbial cultures.

C. Ultra-Low Freezing (-80°C and Below)

• Used for long-term storage of microbial cultures, cells, and tissues.
• Liquid nitrogen (-196°C) is used for cryopreservation.

3. Microorganism Response to Cold

• Psychrophiles:
  • Thrive in cold environments (e.g., Arctic and Antarctic regions).
  • Optimum growth: 0–15°C.
• Psychrotrophs:
  • Grow at cold temperatures but prefer moderate temperatures (e.g., 20–30°C).
  • Example: Pseudomonas fluorescens.
• Mesophiles:
  • Growth slows significantly; cannot multiply at low temperatures.
• Thermophiles:
  • Cannot survive at cold temperatures.

Applications of Cold

1. Food Preservation:
   • Refrigeration and freezing inhibit microbial spoilage and pathogenic growth.
2. Microbial Storage:
   • Cryopreservation maintains the viability of microorganisms and cells for research.
3. Control of Disease Vectors:
   • Freezing kills parasites in meat (e.g., Trichinella spiralis).

---

Comparison of Heat and Cold Effects

Aspect	Heat	Cold
Primary Action	Kills microorganisms.	Slows or inhibits growth.
Effect on Spores	Destroys spores (e.g., autoclaving).	Preserves spores.
Mechanism	Protein denaturation, oxidation.	Slows metabolism, ice damage.
Applications	Sterilization, pasteurization.	Food preservation, cryopreservation.

---

Factors Influencing Heat and Cold Effects

1. Type of Microorganism:
   • Spores and thermophiles resist heat; psychrophiles resist cold.
2. Duration of Exposure:
   • Longer exposure enhances microbial destruction (heat) or inhibition (cold).
3. Moisture Content:
   • Moist heat is more effective than dry heat.
4. Environment:
   • Organic matter may protect microorganisms from heat or cold.

---

Significance in Microbiology

1. Sterilization and Disinfection:
   • Heat is essential for sterilization in healthcare and laboratories.
2. Food Safety:
   • Heat kills pathogens, while cold preserves food quality.
3. Microbial Research:
   • Controlled heat and cold conditions are used for culturing or preserving microorganisms.

• Hospital infection control procedure and role of nurses

Hospital Infection Control Procedure and Role of Nurses

Hospital infection control is a critical aspect of healthcare management aimed at preventing and controlling the spread of infections within healthcare facilities. Nurses play a pivotal role in implementing and maintaining infection control practices to ensure patient safety and protect healthcare workers.

---

Hospital Infection Control Procedures

1. Standard Precautions

Standard precautions are basic infection prevention measures applied to all patients, regardless of their diagnosis or presumed infection status.

• Hand Hygiene:
  • Frequent washing with soap and water or using alcohol-based hand sanitizers.
  • Before and after patient contact, procedures, and touching contaminated surfaces.
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):
  • Gloves, gowns, masks, eye protection, and face shields.
  • Proper donning and doffing techniques.
• Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette:
  • Covering nose and mouth with a tissue or elbow while coughing or sneezing.
  • Providing masks to symptomatic patients.
• Safe Injection Practices:
  • Use sterile needles and syringes for each injection.
  • Proper disposal in sharps containers.
• Environmental Cleaning:
  • Regular disinfection of high-touch surfaces and equipment.
  • Use of approved hospital-grade disinfectants.

---

2. Transmission-Based Precautions

Additional precautions for patients with known or suspected infections.

• Contact Precautions:
  • Used for infections spread through direct or indirect contact (e.g., MRSA, Clostridioides difficile).
  • Includes use of gloves and gowns.
• Droplet Precautions:
  • Used for infections spread by large respiratory droplets (e.g., influenza, COVID-19).
  • Requires masks and sometimes eye protection.
• Airborne Precautions:
  • Used for infections spread by airborne particles (e.g., tuberculosis, measles).
  • Includes use of N95 respirators and placement in negative-pressure isolation rooms.

---

3. Sterilization and Disinfection

• Sterilization:
  • Complete elimination of all microorganisms, including spores.
  • Methods: Autoclaving, ethylene oxide gas, dry heat.
• Disinfection:
  • Reduction of pathogenic microorganisms on surfaces.
  • Use of disinfectants like chlorine, alcohol, or quaternary ammonium compounds.

---

4. Waste Management

• Segregation of waste into color-coded containers.
  • Yellow: Infectious waste (e.g., body fluids, tissues).
  • Red: Contaminated recyclables (e.g., IV sets, catheters).
  • Blue/White: Sharp waste (e.g., needles, scalpels).
  • Black: Non-infectious general waste.
• Proper disposal according to biomedical waste management guidelines.

---

5. Surveillance

• Monitoring infection rates and trends within the hospital.
• Collecting and analyzing data on hospital-acquired infections (HAIs).

---

6. Antimicrobial Stewardship

• Rational use of antibiotics to prevent resistance.
• Regular review of antimicrobial policies and patient prescriptions.

---

7. Employee Health

• Vaccination programs (e.g., hepatitis B, influenza).
• Regular screening for tuberculosis or other infections.
• Training in infection control practices.

---

Role of Nurses in Infection Control

1. Implementation of Infection Control Practices

• Adhering to standard and transmission-based precautions.
• Ensuring compliance with hand hygiene protocols.
• Using PPE appropriately and training others in its use.

2. Patient Care

• Maintaining aseptic techniques during procedures (e.g., catheterization, wound care).
• Educating patients about infection prevention measures.
• Monitoring patients for signs of infection.

3. Environmental Management

• Ensuring proper cleaning and disinfection of patient care areas.
• Reporting and addressing breaches in infection control.

4. Waste Management

• Segregating and disposing of biomedical waste correctly.
• Educating staff about safe waste handling practices.

5. Surveillance and Reporting

• Identifying and reporting cases of HAIs.
• Assisting in outbreak investigations and implementing control measures.

6. Education and Training

• Educating patients and families about infection prevention.
• Training junior staff and colleagues on infection control procedures.

7. Collaboration

• Working with infection control teams to implement policies.
• Participating in infection control audits and assessments.

---

Common Hospital-Acquired Infections (HAIs)

1. Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs):
   • Often linked to indwelling catheters.
2. Surgical Site Infections (SSIs):
   • Associated with improper sterilization or surgical techniques.
3. Bloodstream Infections (BSIs):
   • Related to central lines or IV devices.
4. Pneumonia:
   • Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) is common in ICU settings.

---

Challenges in Infection Control

• Non-compliance with hand hygiene and PPE protocols.
• Antibiotic resistance.
• Limited resources in low-income settings.
• Overcrowding in hospitals.

---

Significance of Infection Control

• Prevents HAIs, reducing morbidity and mortality.
• Improves patient outcomes and hospital reputation.
• Decreases healthcare costs by reducing the need for prolonged treatments.