💉 “Hemoglobin holds the oxygen of life.”
🗨️ Hemoglobin (Hb) is the iron-containing protein in red blood cells (RBCs) responsible for transporting oxygen from lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide back to lungs.
| 👥 Population Group | 💯 Normal Range (g/dL) |
|---|---|
| 👨 Adult Male | 13.5 – 17.5 g/dL |
| 👩 Adult Female | 12.0 – 15.5 g/dL |
| 🤰 Pregnant Women | 11.0 – 12.0 g/dL |
| 🧒 Children | 11.0 – 13.5 g/dL |
| 👶 Infants (0–1 year) | 10.0 – 12.5 g/dL |
| 👼 Newborns | 14.0 – 24.0 g/dL |
🔻 Causes:
🔹 Symptoms: Fatigue, pallor, SOB, dizziness
🔺 Causes:
🔹 Symptoms: Headache, ruddy skin, high BP, visual disturbance
✔️ Collect venous blood sample with EDTA tube (purple cap)
✔️ Avoid hemolysis by gentle handling
✔️ Monitor signs of anemia or hypoxia
✔️ Educate on diet rich in iron (e.g., green leafy, red meat)
✔️ Follow-up for iron supplements or transfusion
✅ Q: What is the normal Hb level in adult females?
🅰️ 12–15.5 g/dL
✅ Q: What tube is used for Hb test?
🅰️ EDTA (lavender/purple)
✅ Q: What is a major symptom of low Hb?
🅰️ Fatigue and pallor
✅ Q: Hb level in pregnancy is considered normal if…?
🅰️ ≥11.0 g/dL
✅ Q: Hb >17.5 in male may suggest…?
🅰️ Polycythemia
✅ These values are part of Complete Blood Count (CBC) and help classify anemia types.
| 📏 Measures | 🎯 Interpretation |
|---|---|
| Average size of RBCs | |
| 🔹 Normal: 80–100 fL | |
| 🔸 ↓ MCV = Microcytic anemia | |
| 🔸 ↑ MCV = Macrocytic anemia |
| 📏 Measures | 🎯 Interpretation |
|---|---|
| Average amount of hemoglobin per RBC | |
| 🔹 Normal: 27–33 pg | |
| 🔸 ↓ MCH = Hypochromia | |
| 🔸 ↑ MCH = Macrocytic (often) |
| 📏 Measures | 🎯 Interpretation |
|---|---|
| Hemoglobin concentration in RBCs | |
| 🔹 Normal: 32–36 g/dL | |
| 🔸 ↓ MCHC = Hypochromic | |
| 🔸 ↑ MCHC = Spherocytosis (rare) |
| 📏 Measures | 🎯 Interpretation |
|---|---|
| Variation in RBC size (anisocytosis) | |
| 🔹 Normal: 11.5–14.5% | |
| 🔸 ↑ RDW = Mixed RBC populations (e.g., iron + B12 deficiency) |
| 🩸 RBC Indices | 🧪 Suggestive Anemia |
|---|---|
| ↓ MCV, ↓ MCH | Iron deficiency |
| ↑ MCV, Normal MCHC | Megaloblastic (B12/Folic acid) |
| Normal MCV, ↓ Hb | Normocytic normochromic (e.g., acute blood loss) |
| ↑ RDW | Mixed anemia or early deficiency state |
✔️ Monitor signs & symptoms: fatigue, pallor, SOB, tachycardia
✔️ Collect CBC samples using EDTA tube
✔️ Educate on dietary sources:
🍖 Iron – red meat, spinach
🥚 B12 – eggs, milk
🌽 Folic acid – leafy greens, cereals
✔️ Administer iron, folic acid, or B12 supplements
✔️ Prepare for blood transfusion if ordered
✅ Q: What does MCV measure?
🅰️ Average size of red blood cells
✅ Q: What type of anemia is seen in iron deficiency?
🅰️ Microcytic hypochromic
✅ Q: MCV >100 fL suggests…?
🅰️ Macrocytic (Megaloblastic) anemia
✅ Q: Which index is increased in mixed anemia?
🅰️ RDW (Red cell distribution width)
✅ Q: What is the normal range for MCHC?
🅰️ 32–36 g/dL
🧫 “Healthy liver, healthy life — test, detect, protect.”
🗨️ Liver Function Test (LFT) is a panel of blood tests used to assess the health and function of the liver by measuring enzymes, proteins, and waste products.
✅ Helps detect liver inflammation, damage, obstruction, infection, or liver failure.
| 🧬 Test Name | 🔍 Normal Range | 🎯 Purpose |
|---|---|---|
| ALT (SGPT) | 7–56 U/L | Liver cell injury indicator |
| AST (SGOT) | 10–40 U/L | Detects liver/muscle damage |
| ALP (Alkaline Phosphatase) | 44–147 U/L | Bile duct/liver/bone disease |
| Total Bilirubin | 0.3–1.2 mg/dL | Measures liver’s ability to clear bilirubin |
| Direct Bilirubin | 0.1–0.3 mg/dL | Conjugated bilirubin (obstruction) |
| Indirect Bilirubin | 0.2–0.8 mg/dL | Unconjugated bilirubin (hemolysis) |
| Total Protein | 6.0–8.3 g/dL | Overall protein status |
| Albumin | 3.5–5.0 g/dL | Synthesized by liver – indicates function |
| Globulin | 2.3–3.5 g/dL | Immune protein – changes in liver disease |
| Prothrombin Time (PT) | 11–13.5 sec | Coagulation time – affected in liver failure |
✔️ Jaundice (yellow skin/eyes)
✔️ Abdominal pain (RUQ)
✔️ Alcohol abuse or hepatitis
✔️ Drug-induced liver injury
✔️ Monitoring cirrhosis, fatty liver, hepatitis B/C
✔️ Pre-operative evaluation
| 🔍 Finding | 💡 Possible Condition |
|---|---|
| ↑ ALT & AST | Hepatitis, liver injury |
| ↑ ALP | Bile duct obstruction, bone disease |
| ↑ Bilirubin (Total/Direct) | Jaundice, gallstones, liver failure |
| ↓ Albumin | Chronic liver disease, malnutrition |
| ↑ PT/INR | Liver failure (↓ clotting factor synthesis) |
✔️ Ensure fasting if ordered (for bilirubin)
✔️ Collect venous blood sample (plain/red-top tube)
✔️ Avoid hemolysis during collection
✔️ Monitor signs: jaundice, ascites, bruising, itching
✔️ Educate on liver-friendly diet (low fat, no alcohol)
✔️ Administer prescribed hepatoprotective meds
✔️ Record/report abnormal findings immediately
🔸 Avoid alcohol before test
🔸 Do not take hepatotoxic medications (unless advised)
🔸 Use unclotted sample for accurate testing
✅ Q: What does ALT primarily indicate?
🅰️ Liver cell damage
✅ Q: What is the normal range for total bilirubin?
🅰️ 0.3–1.2 mg/dL
✅ Q: Low albumin in LFT indicates…?
🅰️ Chronic liver disease
✅ Q: Which enzyme is elevated in bile duct obstruction?
🅰️ ALP (Alkaline Phosphatase)
✅ Q: Prothrombin Time is prolonged in…?
🅰️ Liver failure
🌟 KIDNEY FUNCTION TEST (KFT) 🌟
🧪 “Filter check for life — test your kidneys before it’s too late.”
🗨️ Kidney Function Tests (KFT) are a group of blood and urine tests used to assess how well the kidneys are filtering waste, balancing fluids, and regulating electrolytes.
✅ These tests help detect renal dysfunction, failure, and systemic diseases affecting the kidneys.
| 🔬 Test | 💯 Normal Range | 🎯 Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Serum Creatinine | 0.6 – 1.2 mg/dL | Measures glomerular filtration ability |
| Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) | 7 – 20 mg/dL | Waste from protein breakdown |
| BUN/Creatinine Ratio | 10:1 – 20:1 | Differentiates pre-renal and renal failure |
| Uric Acid | M: 3.4–7.0 mg/dL F: 2.4–6.0 mg/dL | Elevated in gout, renal dysfunction |
| eGFR (Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate) | >90 mL/min/1.73 m² | Indicates filtration rate (best renal marker) |
| Electrolytes (Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻, HCO₃⁻) | Na⁺: 135–145 mmol/L K⁺: 3.5–5.0 mmol/L | Assesses fluid and electrolyte balance |
| Calcium (Ca²⁺) | 8.5 – 10.5 mg/dL | May decrease in chronic kidney disease |
| Phosphate | 2.5 – 4.5 mg/dL | Often increased in renal failure |
| Urine Output | >0.5 mL/kg/hr | Critical in ICU monitoring |
| Urinalysis | Clear, protein-negative, no blood | Detects infection, proteinuria, hematuria |
| 🧪 Result | ⚠️ Possible Indication |
|---|---|
| ↑ Creatinine | Renal failure, dehydration, nephrotoxic drugs |
| ↑ BUN | High protein intake, renal dysfunction, GI bleed |
| ↓ eGFR (<60) | Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) |
| ↑ Uric acid | Gout, renal dysfunction |
| Protein in urine | Early sign of kidney disease |
| ↓ Calcium / ↑ Phosphorus | Chronic renal failure (mineral imbalance) |
✔️ Hypertension
✔️ Diabetes mellitus
✔️ Edema, puffiness
✔️ Frequent urination or retention
✔️ Flank pain
✔️ Monitoring nephrotoxic drugs (e.g., aminoglycosides)
✔️ Before contrast imaging or major surgery
✔️ Collect fasting blood sample in plain/red-top tube
✔️ Collect 24-hour urine sample if ordered
✔️ Maintain intake–output chart accurately
✔️ Educate on low-protein, low-sodium renal diets
✔️ Monitor for fluid overload or electrolyte imbalance
✔️ Report abnormal findings to physician promptly
🚫 Avoid high-protein meals before testing
🚫 Some medications (e.g., diuretics, NSAIDs) may alter results
🚫 Always check hydration status before interpreting BUN/Cr
✅ Q: What is the best marker for kidney function?
🅰️ eGFR
✅ Q: Normal range of serum creatinine in adults?
🅰️ 0.6–1.2 mg/dL
✅ Q: Which value increases in chronic kidney disease?
🅰️ Phosphate and creatinine
✅ Q: What is the critical urine output to monitor in ICU?
🅰️ > 0.5 mL/kg/hour
✅ Q: BUN/Creatinine ratio >20:1 suggests…?
🅰️ Pre-renal causes like dehydration
💓 “When the heart cries, biomarkers speak.”
🗨️ Cardiac biomarkers are enzymes, proteins, or hormones released into the bloodstream when the heart muscle is damaged, such as during a myocardial infarction (MI) or other cardiac events.
✅ Used for diagnosis, monitoring, and prognosis of heart conditions.
| 🧬 Biomarker | ⏱️ Time of Rise | 🕒 Peak Time | ⏳ Return to Normal | 💯 Normal Range | 🎯 Clinical Use |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Troponin I (TnI) | 3–6 hrs | 14–20 hrs | 5–10 days | < 0.04 ng/mL | Most specific marker for MI |
| Troponin T (TnT) | 3–6 hrs | 12–48 hrs | 10–14 days | < 0.01 ng/mL | Detects even small infarcts |
| CK-MB (Creatine Kinase – Myocardial Band) | 4–6 hrs | 12–24 hrs | 2–3 days | < 3–5 ng/mL | Useful for reinfarction detection |
| Myoglobin | 1–3 hrs | 6–9 hrs | 24 hrs | < 85 ng/mL | Early but nonspecific marker |
| BNP (B-type Natriuretic Peptide) | Variable | Variable | Variable | < 100 pg/mL | Diagnosis of heart failure |
| NT-proBNP | Variable | — | — | < 300 pg/mL (age-dependent) | Prognostic in heart failure |
| LDH (Lactate Dehydrogenase) | 12–24 hrs | 48–72 hrs | 7–14 days | 100–190 U/L | Used when troponin not available |
| CRP (C-Reactive Protein, hs-CRP) | Non-specific | — | — | < 1 mg/L (low risk) | Indicates inflammation, risk of MI |
🔹 Most specific and sensitive
🔹 Rise within 3–6 hours of heart muscle damage
🔹 Remain elevated for days (great for late diagnosis)
🔹 Not influenced by skeletal muscle injury
| 📈 Marker Elevated | 💡 Indication |
|---|---|
| ↑ Troponin I/T | Acute MI, myocarditis |
| ↑ CK-MB + Troponin | MI or reinfarction |
| ↑ BNP/NT-proBNP | Heart failure |
| ↑ Myoglobin (early) | Muscle injury (cardiac or skeletal) |
| ↑ CRP | Systemic inflammation, MI risk |
✔️ Chest pain > 20 minutes
✔️ Shortness of breath, sweating
✔️ History of CAD, hypertension
✔️ Post-surgical cardiac monitoring
✔️ Heart failure symptoms (fatigue, edema, orthopnea)
✔️ Collect blood sample in timely manner (serially at 0, 3, 6, 12 hrs)
✔️ Use correct tubes (serum separator or lithium heparin)
✔️ Handle specimen gently (avoid hemolysis)
✔️ Monitor vital signs, chest pain characteristics
✔️ Educate patient on heart attack symptoms
✔️ Report abnormal values urgently to physician
✅ Q: What is the most specific cardiac marker for MI?
🅰️ Troponin I
✅ Q: Which marker rises first after myocardial injury?
🅰️ Myoglobin (1–3 hrs)
✅ Q: BNP is used to assess…?
🅰️ Heart failure
✅ Q: CK-MB returns to normal within…?
🅰️ 2–3 days
✅ Q: Elevated CRP levels indicate…?
🅰️ Inflammation and cardiovascular risk
🫀 “Time is muscle — quick action saves the heart.”
🗨️ Myocardial Infarction (MI) is the death of heart muscle (myocardium) due to sudden blockage of coronary artery, leading to oxygen deprivation and tissue necrosis.
🔹 Crushing chest pain (radiating to arm/jaw)
🔹 Shortness of breath (dyspnea)
🔹 Sweating (diaphoresis)
🔹 Nausea, vomiting
🔹 Fatigue, anxiety
🔹 Cold, clammy skin
🔹 Hypotension or arrhythmia
| 🩺 Nursing Action | 💡 Rationale |
|---|---|
| ✅ Monitor vital signs & ECG | Detect arrhythmia, monitor perfusion |
| ✅ Administer oxygen (2–4 L/min) | Increase oxygen supply to myocardium |
| ✅ Administer medications as ordered | MONA: |
| 💊 M – Morphine | |
| 💊 O – Oxygen | |
| 💊 N – Nitrates (Nitroglycerin) | |
| 💊 A – Aspirin | |
| ✅ Start IV line | Administer fluids, emergency meds |
| ✅ Ensure bed rest (Semi-Fowler’s) | ↓ oxygen demand, improve breathing |
| ✅ Assess chest pain (PQRST) | Monitor for recurrence or worsening |
| ✅ Prepare for cardiac catheterization | Identify and open blocked artery |
| ✅ Collect cardiac markers (Troponin, CK-MB) | Confirm MI diagnosis |
| 🩺 Nursing Action | 💡 Rationale |
|---|---|
| ✅ Monitor I/O | Detect renal perfusion, fluid overload |
| ✅ Daily weight & lung sounds | Monitor for heart failure (crackles, edema) |
| ✅ Provide low-sodium, low-fat diet | Reduce cardiac workload |
| ✅ Administer anticoagulants / beta-blockers | Prevent thrombus, reduce workload |
| ✅ Promote deep breathing & coughing | Prevent pneumonia, maintain lung function |
| ✅ Reduce stress & anxiety | Prevent catecholamine surge |
| 🩺 Nursing Action | 💡 Rationale |
|---|---|
| ✅ Gradually increase activity | Enhance cardiac conditioning |
| ✅ Educate on lifestyle changes | Smoking cessation, diet, exercise |
| ✅ Medication teaching | Importance of antiplatelets, statins, beta-blockers |
| ✅ Referral to cardiac rehab | Structured recovery plan with monitored exercise |
| ✅ Teach warning signs of MI | Early intervention in future episodes |
| 💊 Drug Class | 🧪 Example | 🎯 Purpose |
|---|---|---|
| Antiplatelet | Aspirin, Clopidogrel | Prevent clot formation |
| Nitrates | Nitroglycerin | Dilate vessels, relieve pain |
| Beta-blockers | Metoprolol | ↓ HR & BP, ↓ oxygen demand |
| ACE inhibitors | Enalapril, Ramipril | Prevent remodeling, lower BP |
| Statins | Atorvastatin | Lower cholesterol, stabilize plaque |
| Anticoagulants | Heparin, Enoxaparin | Prevent new clots |
🔴 Arrhythmias (V-tach, V-fib)
🔴 Heart failure
🔴 Cardiogenic shock
🔴 Recurrent MI
🔴 Pericarditis
🔴 Pulmonary edema
✅ Q: What is the immediate drug given in MI for pain?
🅰️ Morphine
✅ Q: What does MONA stand for?
🅰️ Morphine, Oxygen, Nitrates, Aspirin
✅ Q: What position improves oxygenation in MI?
🅰️ Semi-Fowler’s
✅ Q: Which enzyme is most specific for MI?
🅰️ Troponin I
✅ Q: What is the major goal of MI nursing care?
🅰️ Relieve pain and restore myocardial perfusion
Would you like a step-by-step MI nursing care plan, MI medication chart, or continue with topics like Heart Failure Nursing Care, Cardiac Rehab Teaching Plan, or ECG Changes in MI? 😊📘❤️🔥🧠
PULMONARY FUNCTION TEST
Here is your complete and colorful guide to 🌟 Pulmonary Function Test (PFT) 🌟, presented in your favorite structured, emoji-enriched, and exam-focused style — ideal for respiratory assessment, nursing diagnostics, and competitive exams 🎯📘🫁🧪
🫁 “Measure the breath — understand the lungs.”
🗨️ Pulmonary Function Test (PFT) refers to a group of non-invasive tests that measure how well the lungs work, including lung volume, capacity, flow rates, and gas exchange efficiency.
✅ Used for diagnosis, monitoring, and evaluation of respiratory conditions.
✔️ Diagnose lung diseases (asthma, COPD, fibrosis)
✔️ Evaluate shortness of breath
✔️ Monitor treatment effectiveness
✔️ Pre-operative assessment (especially in thoracic surgery)
✔️ Detect occupational lung diseases
✔️ Differentiate between obstructive vs restrictive disorders
| 🧪 Test Type | 🧠 What It Measures | 💡 Use |
|---|---|---|
| Spirometry | Airflow in and out of lungs | Detects obstruction/restriction |
| Lung Volume Test | Total lung size & subdivisions | Diagnoses restrictive disorders |
| Diffusion Capacity (DLCO) | Gas transfer efficiency across alveoli | Used in fibrosis, emphysema |
| Peak Flow Meter (PEFR) | Maximum speed of exhalation | Asthma self-monitoring |
| Arterial Blood Gases (ABG) | Oxygen, CO₂, pH in blood | Assesses gas exchange and acid-base status |
| Pulse Oximetry | Oxygen saturation (SpO₂) | Screening and continuous monitoring |
| 📌 Parameter | 💯 Normal Value | 📖 Significance |
|---|---|---|
| FVC (Forced Vital Capacity) | ≥ 80% predicted | Total air exhaled forcefully |
| FEV₁ (Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 sec) | ≥ 80% predicted | Air expelled in first second |
| FEV₁/FVC Ratio | > 0.7 (or 70%) | Distinguishes between obstructive/restrictive disease |
| PEFR (Peak Expiratory Flow Rate) | Age/sex dependent | Measures maximal speed of exhalation |
| 📊 Finding | 💡 Possible Condition |
|---|---|
| ↓ FEV₁, ↓ FEV₁/FVC | Obstructive (asthma, COPD) |
| ↓ FVC, normal FEV₁/FVC | Restrictive (fibrosis, obesity, scoliosis) |
| ↓ DLCO | Emphysema, pulmonary fibrosis |
| ↓ PEFR | Asthma exacerbation |
👩⚕️
✔️ Explain procedure and demonstrate breathing techniques
✔️ Instruct patient to avoid smoking/caffeine 6 hrs before test
✔️ Hold bronchodilators as ordered
✔️ Ensure proper seal of mouthpiece during spirometry
✔️ Monitor for dizziness, fatigue, SOB during test
✔️ Document any pre-existing conditions or medications
🚫 Recent chest/abdominal surgery
🚫 Recent myocardial infarction (MI)
🚫 Hemoptysis of unknown origin
🚫 Pneumothorax
🚫 Uncooperative or very young patient
✅ Q: What is the main test to diagnose obstructive lung disease?
🅰️ Spirometry
✅ Q: What does FEV₁ measure?
🅰️ Volume of air exhaled in first second
✅ Q: What FEV₁/FVC ratio indicates obstruction?
🅰️ < 70%
✅ Q: What test measures gas exchange efficiency?
🅰️ DLCO (Diffusing capacity)
✅ Q: Which test can be done at home by asthma patients?
🅰️ Peak Flow Meter (PEFR)
🧬 “Hormones in balance — tests reveal the secret messengers.”
🗨️ Endocrine function tests are blood, urine, or stimulation/suppression tests that help assess the functioning of endocrine glands and the hormone levels they produce.
✅ Used to diagnose hormonal imbalances, gland dysfunction, and endocrine disorders.
| 🧠 Gland | 💉 Key Tests | 🧪 Hormones Checked |
|---|---|---|
| Pituitary | Serum ACTH, GH, TSH, LH, FSH | Growth hormone (GH), ACTH, TSH, LH, FSH, prolactin |
| Thyroid | T3, T4, TSH, TRH stimulation | TSH, Free T4, T3 |
| Parathyroid | Serum calcium, PTH | Parathyroid hormone, Ca²⁺, phosphate |
| Adrenal | Serum cortisol, ACTH stimulation, DHEA, aldosterone, renin | Cortisol, Aldosterone, Androgens |
| Pancreas | Fasting blood sugar, HbA1c, insulin, C-peptide | Insulin, Glucagon |
| Ovaries/Testes | Estrogen, Progesterone, Testosterone, LH/FSH | Sex hormones |
| 🧪 Test | 🔍 Purpose |
|---|---|
| Serum GH | Assess gigantism/acromegaly |
| Serum ACTH | Stimulates cortisol production |
| TSH, FSH, LH, Prolactin | Evaluate anterior pituitary function |
| Water deprivation test | Assesses ADH (diabetes insipidus) |
| 🧪 Test | 📈 Normal Range |
|---|---|
| TSH | 0.4 – 4.0 mIU/L |
| Free T4 (FT4) | 0.8 – 2.8 ng/dL |
| T3 (Total or Free) | 80 – 180 ng/dL |
| Thyroid Antibodies (TPO, TgAb) | For autoimmune thyroiditis |
🧠 Used to diagnose hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, goiter, thyroiditis
| 🧪 Test | 📈 Normal Value |
|---|---|
| PTH (Parathyroid Hormone) | 10 – 65 pg/mL |
| Serum Calcium | 8.5 – 10.5 mg/dL |
| Phosphorus | 2.5 – 4.5 mg/dL |
| Vitamin D | 20–50 ng/mL (affects Ca⁺ regulation) |
| 🧪 Test | 📈 Normal Value |
|---|---|
| Serum Cortisol (AM) | 6 – 23 mcg/dL |
| ACTH Stimulation Test | ↑ cortisol = normal response |
| Dexamethasone Suppression Test | For Cushing’s syndrome |
| Aldosterone / Renin Ratio | For Conn’s syndrome (hyperaldosteronism) |
| Serum DHEA-S | For adrenal androgen excess |
| 🧪 Test | 📈 Normal Value |
|---|---|
| Fasting Blood Glucose (FBS) | 70 – 100 mg/dL |
| HbA1c | < 5.7% (Normal) 5.7–6.4% (Pre-DM) ≥ 6.5% (Diabetes) |
| Serum Insulin | 2 – 20 µIU/mL |
| C-Peptide | Differentiates type 1 & 2 DM |
| Glucose Tolerance Test (GTT) | Tests body’s response to glucose |
👩⚕️
✔️ Explain the test, fasting requirements (especially for glucose, cortisol, GH)
✔️ Ensure rest before cortisol or GH tests
✔️ Time-based sample (e.g., morning cortisol)
✔️ Use correct sample tubes (EDTA, plain, fluoride)
✔️ Monitor for hypoglycemia or hypertension during dynamic tests
✔️ Document medication history (steroids can alter cortisol tests)
✅ Q: Which test is used for thyroid hormone monitoring?
🅰️ TSH
✅ Q: What is the best test for diabetes diagnosis?
🅰️ HbA1c
✅ Q: What hormone is elevated in Cushing’s syndrome?
🅰️ Cortisol
✅ Q: Water deprivation test is used to diagnose…?
🅰️ Diabetes insipidus
✅ Q: What does a high TSH with low T3/T4 indicate?
🅰️ Primary hypothyroidism