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COH – PEDIATRIC – ONE LINER IMP KEY POINTS.

ONE LINER IMP KEY POINTS

Important One-Liner Points on Growth and Development.

1. General Growth and Development Concepts

  1. Growth refers to an increase in physical size, while development refers to the maturation of functions.
  2. Cephalocaudal pattern means development occurs from head to toe.
  3. Proximodistal pattern means development progresses from the center of the body outward.
  4. Milestones are specific skills most children achieve by a certain age.
  5. The first year of life is the most rapid growth period after birth.
  6. Weight doubles by 5 months and triples by 1 year of age.
  7. Length increases by 50% in the first year of life.
  8. Head circumference increases rapidly in the first year, reflecting brain growth.
  9. Fontanelles (soft spots) allow for brain growth after birth.
  10. The posterior fontanelle closes by 2 months, and the anterior fontanelle closes by 18 months.

2. Growth Parameters

  1. Normal birth weight is around 2.5–4 kg.
  2. Low birth weight (LBW) is defined as less than 2.5 kg.
  3. Very low birth weight (VLBW) is less than 1.5 kg.
  4. Microcephaly refers to a head circumference below the 3rd percentile.
  5. Macrocephaly is an abnormally large head, often due to hydrocephalus.
  6. Failure to thrive (FTT) is poor growth due to inadequate nutrition or underlying conditions.
  7. BMI-for-age is used to assess overweight and obesity in children.
  8. Growth spurts occur during infancy and adolescence.
  9. Tanner staging assesses pubertal development in adolescents.
  10. Delayed puberty is the absence of sexual development by age 13 in girls and 14 in boys.

3. Motor Development

  1. Gross motor skills involve large muscles for activities like sitting, standing, and walking.
  2. Fine motor skills involve small muscles for activities like grasping and drawing.
  3. Head control develops by 3 months of age.
  4. Rolling over occurs around 4–6 months.
  5. Sitting without support is achieved by 6–8 months.
  6. Crawling typically starts around 8–10 months.
  7. Standing with support develops by 9 months.
  8. Walking independently usually occurs around 12–15 months.
  9. Pincer grasp (using thumb and index finger) develops by 9–12 months.
  10. Tower of 2 blocks can be stacked by 15 months.

4. Language Development

  1. Cooing starts around 6–8 weeks of age.
  2. Babbling develops around 4–6 months.
  3. First words typically appear by 12 months.
  4. Two-word phrases are used by 18–24 months.
  5. Vocabulary expands rapidly after 18 months.
  6. Speech should be 50% intelligible by 2 years, 75% by 3 years, and nearly 100% by 4 years.
  7. Echolalia (repeating words) is normal up to 2 years but concerning if persistent beyond that.
  8. Language delay is common in boys but should be evaluated if no words by 18 months.
  9. Bilingual children may have temporary language delays but catch up by age 4.
  10. Hearing loss should be ruled out in cases of speech delay.

5. Cognitive Development (Piaget’s Stages)

  1. Sensorimotor stage (0–2 years) focuses on exploring the world through senses and actions.
  2. Object permanence develops around 8–9 months, meaning the child knows objects exist even when out of sight.
  3. Preoperational stage (2–7 years) involves symbolic thinking and egocentrism.
  4. Concrete operational stage (7–11 years) allows for logical thinking about concrete events.
  5. Formal operational stage (12 years and up) involves abstract and hypothetical reasoning.
  6. Egocentrism is common in preschoolers, making it hard to see others’ perspectives.
  7. Conservation (understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape) develops around 7 years.
  8. Magical thinking is typical in preschool-age children.
  9. Centration is focusing on one aspect of a situation, common in early childhood.
  10. Irreversibility refers to the inability to mentally reverse an action, typical before age 7.

6. Psychosocial Development (Erikson’s Stages)

  1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0–1 year) is about developing a sense of security through caregiver reliability.
  2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1–3 years) focuses on developing independence.
  3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3–6 years) involves asserting control through play and social interaction.
  4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6–12 years) focuses on competence and skills development.
  5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12–18 years) is about developing a personal identity and sense of self.
  6. Positive reinforcement helps foster autonomy in toddlers.
  7. Separation anxiety peaks around 9–18 months.
  8. Stranger anxiety appears around 6–8 months.
  9. Temper tantrums are common in toddlers and reflect frustration with communication limits.
  10. Parallel play is typical in toddlers, while cooperative play emerges in preschoolers.

7. Emotional and Social Development

  1. Attachment is the emotional bond between an infant and caregiver.
  2. Secure attachment is critical for healthy emotional development.
  3. Separation anxiety disorder is excessive fear of separation beyond the expected developmental age.
  4. Social smiling develops around 6 weeks of age.
  5. Temperament refers to a child’s innate personality traits.
  6. Peer relationships become important in school-age children.
  7. Bullying can negatively affect social development and mental health.
  8. Role-playing games help develop social and emotional skills.
  9. Empathy starts to develop around 2 years of age.
  10. Moral development begins in early childhood and is influenced by family and environment.

8. Red Flags in Development

  1. No social smile by 3 months is a developmental red flag.
  2. No head control by 4 months suggests a motor delay.
  3. Not sitting independently by 9 months warrants evaluation.
  4. Not walking by 18 months may indicate a motor delay.
  5. No words by 18 months is a red flag for language delay.
  6. Loss of previously acquired skills suggests a neurodevelopmental disorder.
  7. Persistent toe-walking beyond 2 years may indicate autism or neuromuscular disorders.
  8. Lack of eye contact and social interaction may indicate autism spectrum disorder.
  9. Hand dominance before 18 months may suggest neurological issues.
  10. Inability to follow simple commands by 2 years requires assessment.

9. Nutrition and Growth

  1. Breastfeeding is recommended exclusively for the first 6 months.
  2. Complementary feeding should start at 6 months alongside continued breastfeeding.
  3. Iron deficiency anemia is common after 6 months without iron-rich foods.
  4. Cow’s milk should be avoided before 1 year of age due to the risk of anemia.
  5. Vitamin D supplementation is recommended for all breastfed infants.
  6. Failure to thrive can be due to medical, nutritional, or psychosocial factors.
  7. Obesity in children increases the risk of adult metabolic disorders.
  8. Growth charts are used to monitor weight, height, and head circumference over time.
  9. BMI percentile is used to classify weight status in children over 2 years old.
  10. Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) includes conditions like marasmus and kwashiorkor.

10. Immunizations and Preventive Care

  1. The first vaccine (BCG, Hepatitis B, OPV) is given at birth in many countries.
  2. The DPT vaccine protects against diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus.
  3. The MMR vaccine is given around 9–12 months and again at 15–18 months.
  4. Polio vaccine is given as oral (OPV) or inactivated (IPV) forms.
  5. Rotavirus vaccine helps prevent severe diarrhea in infants.
  6. Hib vaccine prevents infections like meningitis and pneumonia.
  7. HPV vaccine is recommended in adolescents to prevent cervical and other cancers.
  8. Vitamin A supplementation reduces childhood mortality from infections.
  9. Regular developmental screening is crucial during well-child visits.
  10. Early intervention services improve outcomes in children with developmental delays.

Important One-Liner Points on Pediatric History, Breastfeeding, Weaning, and Artificial Feeding.

1. Pediatric History Taking

  1. Pediatric history includes prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal history.
  2. Antenatal history covers maternal health, infections, medications, and complications during pregnancy.
  3. Perinatal history includes birth weight, gestational age, mode of delivery, and any complications.
  4. Postnatal history focuses on feeding, growth, immunizations, and developmental milestones.
  5. Family history helps identify genetic or hereditary conditions.
  6. Immunization history is crucial to assess the risk of vaccine-preventable diseases.
  7. Developmental history tracks milestones in motor, language, and social skills.
  8. Nutritional history evaluates breastfeeding, weaning, and dietary habits.
  9. Past medical history includes previous illnesses, hospitalizations, and surgeries.
  10. History of presenting illness (HPI) should follow the SOCRATES format (Site, Onset, Character, Radiation, Associated symptoms, Timing, Exacerbating/relieving factors, Severity).

2. Breastfeeding

  1. Exclusive breastfeeding is recommended for the first 6 months of life.
  2. Colostrum, the first milk, is rich in antibodies and nutrients.
  3. Foremilk is watery and quenches thirst, while hindmilk is rich in fat and provides energy.
  4. Breast milk contains immunoglobulin A (IgA) for passive immunity.
  5. Prolactin stimulates milk production, and oxytocin causes milk ejection (let-down reflex).
  6. On-demand feeding means feeding the baby whenever they show hunger cues.
  7. Hunger cues include rooting, sucking motions, and hand-to-mouth movements.
  8. Breastfeeding reduces the risk of infections, obesity, and chronic diseases in infants.
  9. Benefits for mothers include reduced risk of breast and ovarian cancers.
  10. Contraindications to breastfeeding include maternal HIV (in certain settings), active TB, and galactosemia in the infant.
  11. Exclusive breastfeeding reduces the risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).
  12. Inverted nipples can cause latching difficulties but are not a contraindication to breastfeeding.
  13. Rooming-in promotes bonding and successful breastfeeding.
  14. Cluster feeding is normal during growth spurts when babies feed more frequently.
  15. Breastfeeding jaundice occurs in the first week due to suboptimal feeding.
  16. Breast milk jaundice can persist longer due to substances in breast milk affecting bilirubin metabolism.
  17. Correct latch involves the baby’s mouth covering both the nipple and part of the areola.
  18. Engorgement occurs when breasts are overly full; managed by frequent feeding.
  19. Mastitis is breast inflammation, often due to infection; breastfeeding should continue during treatment.
  20. Cracked nipples can be prevented with proper latch techniques.

3. Weaning (Complementary Feeding)

  1. Weaning starts at 6 months when breast milk alone is insufficient for nutritional needs.
  2. Complementary foods should be rich in energy, protein, vitamins, and minerals.
  3. Iron-rich foods are important to prevent iron deficiency anemia after 6 months.
  4. Weaning foods should be soft, easily digestible, and introduced one at a time.
  5. Allergenic foods like eggs and peanuts can be introduced early to reduce allergy risks.
  6. Baby-led weaning involves allowing the infant to self-feed solid foods.
  7. Signs of readiness for weaning include good head control and ability to sit with support.
  8. Consistency of food progresses from purees to mashed, then to finger foods.
  9. Avoid honey before 1 year due to the risk of infant botulism.
  10. Cow’s milk should not be the main drink before 1 year due to the risk of anemia.
  11. Gradual introduction of new foods helps identify potential allergies.
  12. Vitamin A, D, and iron supplementation may be needed during weaning.
  13. Responsive feeding encourages children to eat based on hunger and satiety cues.
  14. Avoid adding salt and sugar to infant foods.
  15. Choking hazards like whole grapes, nuts, and hard candies should be avoided.
  16. Feeding frequency should be 2–3 meals plus snacks as the child grows.
  17. Malnutrition can result from inappropriate weaning practices.
  18. Breastfeeding continues alongside complementary feeding up to 2 years or beyond.
  19. Finger foods promote motor development and self-feeding skills.
  20. Meal variety helps develop healthy eating habits and prevent picky eating.

4. Artificial Feeding (Formula Feeding)

  1. Formula feeding is an alternative when breastfeeding is not possible.
  2. Infant formula is designed to mimic the composition of breast milk.
  3. Cow’s milk-based formulas are the most common type used for infants.
  4. Soy-based formulas are used in cases of lactose intolerance or cow’s milk protein allergy.
  5. Hydrolyzed formulas are for infants with severe cow’s milk protein allergy.
  6. Formula should be prepared with boiled, cooled water to prevent infections.
  7. Proper dilution of formula is crucial to avoid electrolyte imbalances.
  8. Over-dilution can cause hyponatremia and water intoxication.
  9. Under-dilution can lead to dehydration and hypernatremia.
  10. Bottle sterilization reduces the risk of gastrointestinal infections.
  11. Feeding bottles should be cleaned thoroughly after each use.
  12. Never prop a bottle as it increases the risk of aspiration and ear infections.
  13. Bottle-fed babies may have more frequent ear infections compared to breastfed infants.
  14. Feeding on demand applies to both breastfed and formula-fed babies.
  15. Do not microwave formula, as it can cause uneven heating and burns.
  16. Prepared formula should be used within 2 hours if left at room temperature.
  17. Discard leftover formula after a feeding to prevent bacterial growth.
  18. Formula-fed babies may have firmer, lighter-colored stools than breastfed babies.
  19. Overfeeding can lead to excessive weight gain in formula-fed infants.
  20. Burping the baby after feeding reduces the risk of gas and spitting up.

5. Feeding Disorders and Challenges

  1. Feeding aversion can develop after traumatic feeding experiences.
  2. Gastroesophageal reflux (GERD) is common in infants and can affect feeding.
  3. Failure to thrive (FTT) may result from inadequate feeding or medical conditions.
  4. Picky eating is common in toddlers and usually resolves with age.
  5. Iron deficiency anemia can occur due to excessive cow’s milk intake.
  6. Food allergies may present with hives, vomiting, or diarrhea after feeding.
  7. Lactose intolerance causes bloating, gas, and diarrhea after dairy consumption.
  8. Celiac disease is triggered by gluten and affects nutrient absorption.
  9. Feeding therapy can help children with oral motor delays or aversions.
  10. Growth monitoring helps detect feeding-related issues early.

6. Nutritional Requirements in Infancy

  1. Breast milk provides all necessary nutrients for the first 6 months except vitamin D.
  2. Vitamin D supplementation is recommended for all breastfed infants.
  3. Iron supplementation is needed for preterm infants from 2 months of age.
  4. Energy needs are higher in infants due to rapid growth and development.
  5. Zinc deficiency can cause growth failure and poor wound healing.
  6. Omega-3 fatty acids in breast milk support brain development.
  7. High-protein diets are not recommended for infants under 1 year.
  8. Fluoride supplementation may be needed if drinking water is not fluoridated.
  9. Breastfed infants have lower risks of obesity and metabolic diseases later in life.
  10. Preterm infants require fortified breast milk or special preterm formulas.

7. Special Feeding Situations

  1. Kangaroo mother care promotes breastfeeding and bonding, especially for preterm infants.
  2. Expressed breast milk (EBM) can be stored in the refrigerator for up to 4 days.
  3. Breast milk can be frozen for up to 6 months in a deep freezer.
  4. Feeding tubes may be used temporarily for infants unable to feed orally.
  5. Cup feeding is an alternative to bottle feeding in certain cases.
  6. Gastrostomy feeding is used for long-term feeding difficulties.
  7. Reflux precautions include upright positioning after feeds.
  8. Allergy-prone infants benefit from exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months.
  9. Feeding during illness should continue to support recovery.
  10. Responsive feeding fosters a healthy parent-child relationship and prevents overfeeding.

Important One-Liner Points on Newborn Care, Characteristics, Assessment, Reflexes, and Disorders.

1. Characteristics of a Newborn

  1. The neonatal period refers to the first 28 days of life.
  2. Average birth weight of a full-term newborn is 2.5–4 kg.
  3. Low birth weight (LBW) is defined as less than 2.5 kg.
  4. Very low birth weight (VLBW) is less than 1.5 kg.
  5. Extremely low birth weight (ELBW) is less than 1 kg.
  6. Full-term gestation ranges from 37 to 42 weeks.
  7. Preterm infants are born before 37 weeks of gestation.
  8. Post-term infants are born after 42 weeks of gestation.
  9. Lanugo is fine hair covering the newborn’s body, more prominent in preterm babies.
  10. Vernix caseosa is a white, cheesy substance covering the newborn’s skin at birth.
  11. Acrocyanosis (bluish hands and feet) is normal in the first 24–48 hours.
  12. Milia are small white spots on the newborn’s nose and face, caused by clogged sebaceous glands.
  13. Mongolian spots are bluish-gray patches commonly seen on the back or buttocks, especially in darker-skinned infants.
  14. Physiological jaundice appears after 24 hours of birth and resolves within a week.
  15. Newborns have a higher heart rate, typically 120–160 beats per minute.
  16. Normal respiratory rate in newborns is 30–60 breaths per minute.
  17. Periodic breathing is normal, with brief pauses of less than 10 seconds.
  18. The anterior fontanelle is diamond-shaped and closes by 18 months.
  19. The posterior fontanelle is triangular and closes by 2 months of age.
  20. Caput succedaneum is swelling of the scalp due to birth trauma, crossing suture lines.
  21. Cephalohematoma is a collection of blood under the periosteum that does not cross suture lines.
  22. Epstein’s pearls are benign cysts found on the gums or palate of newborns.
  23. Strabismus (crossed eyes) is common and usually resolves within 6 months.
  24. Umbilical cord usually dries and falls off within 1–2 weeks.
  25. Brick dust urine (pinkish staining) is normal in the first few days due to urate crystals.

2. Newborn Assessment

  1. APGAR score assesses Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, and Respiration.
  2. APGAR is done at 1 and 5 minutes after birth.
  3. An APGAR score of 7–10 indicates a healthy newborn.
  4. Ballard score is used to assess gestational age.
  5. Vital signs should be checked frequently in the first hours after birth.
  6. Birth weight, length, and head circumference are key measurements for newborn assessment.
  7. Normal head circumference is 33–35 cm.
  8. Chest circumference is usually 1–2 cm less than head circumference.
  9. Length of a full-term newborn is about 50 cm.
  10. Hypoglycemia in newborns is defined as blood glucose <40 mg/dL.
  11. Hypothermia is common due to immature thermoregulation.
  12. Thermoregulation is maintained by brown fat metabolism.
  13. Skin-to-skin contact (kangaroo care) helps regulate temperature.
  14. Capillary refill time should be less than 3 seconds.
  15. Hyperbilirubinemia is assessed by checking for jaundice in the skin and sclera.
  16. Pulse oximetry screening is used to detect critical congenital heart defects.
  17. Newborn hearing screening helps identify early hearing loss.
  18. Metabolic screening tests identify conditions like PKU and hypothyroidism.
  19. Heel-stick test is commonly used for blood sampling in newborns.
  20. Hip dysplasia screening is done using Barlow and Ortolani maneuvers.

3. Newborn Reflexes

  1. Rooting reflex helps the baby find the nipple, present until 4 months.
  2. Sucking reflex allows feeding, present until 4 months.
  3. Moro reflex (startle reflex) causes the baby to extend arms when startled, disappears by 6 months.
  4. Palmar grasp reflex causes the baby to grasp objects placed in the hand, disappears by 5–6 months.
  5. Plantar grasp reflex involves curling of the toes when the sole is stroked, disappears by 9–12 months.
  6. Tonic neck reflex (fencing reflex) involves head turning with arm extension, disappears by 6 months.
  7. Babinski reflex shows toe fanning when the sole is stroked, normal until 12 months.
  8. Stepping reflex causes the baby to mimic walking when held upright, disappears by 2 months.
  9. Galant reflex causes the trunk to curve when the side of the spine is stroked, disappears by 6 months.
  10. Reflexes beyond normal age may indicate neurological problems.

4. Immediate Care of the Newborn

  1. Drying the newborn immediately after birth prevents heat loss.
  2. Airway, breathing, circulation (ABC) is the priority in newborn care.
  3. Clearing the airway with a bulb syringe if necessary.
  4. Skin-to-skin contact promotes bonding and temperature regulation.
  5. Umbilical cord clamping is done 1–3 minutes after birth.
  6. Delayed cord clamping improves iron stores in the newborn.
  7. Eye prophylaxis prevents ophthalmia neonatorum.
  8. Vitamin K injection prevents bleeding disorders.
  9. Hepatitis B vaccine is given at birth.
  10. Thermal protection includes warm blankets, hats, and a warm environment.
  11. First breastfeeding should be initiated within 1 hour of birth.
  12. Early initiation of breastfeeding improves infant survival rates.
  13. Rooming-in allows the newborn to stay with the mother for continuous care.
  14. Identification bands prevent newborn mix-ups in the hospital.
  15. Observation for danger signs like poor feeding, lethargy, or breathing difficulty is essential.

5. Ongoing Newborn Care

  1. Umbilical stump care prevents infection; keep it clean and dry.
  2. Bathing is delayed until temperature stabilizes.
  3. Exclusive breastfeeding is recommended for the first 6 months.
  4. Burping after feeding helps release swallowed air.
  5. Diaper changes should be frequent to prevent rashes.
  6. Safe sleep position is on the back to reduce the risk of SIDS.
  7. Room sharing without bed-sharing reduces SIDS risk.
  8. Car seat safety is essential when transporting newborns.
  9. Monitoring weight loss in the first week; up to 10% loss is normal.
  10. Regaining birth weight usually occurs by 10–14 days.
  11. Daily weight checks are important for preterm or sick newborns.
  12. Circumcision care involves keeping the area clean and monitoring for infection.
  13. Infant massage may promote bonding and relaxation.
  14. Immunization schedule begins at birth with Hepatitis B vaccine.
  15. Developmental screenings are part of routine pediatric visits.

6. Common Newborn Disorders

  1. Neonatal jaundice is common due to immature liver function.
  2. Pathological jaundice occurs within 24 hours and needs urgent evaluation.
  3. Kernicterus is brain damage from severe jaundice.
  4. Phototherapy is used to treat significant jaundice.
  5. Neonatal sepsis presents with poor feeding, lethargy, and temperature instability.
  6. Early-onset sepsis occurs within 72 hours, often from maternal infection.
  7. Late-onset sepsis occurs after 72 hours, often from environmental exposure.
  8. Hypoglycemia presents with jitteriness, poor feeding, or seizures.
  9. Transient tachypnea of the newborn (TTN) is common in C-section babies due to delayed fluid clearance.
  10. Meconium aspiration syndrome occurs when meconium is inhaled into the lungs.
  11. Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) is due to surfactant deficiency, common in preterm infants.
  12. Hypothermia is dangerous due to poor temperature regulation.
  13. Neonatal hypocalcemia can cause jitteriness, seizures, and irritability.
  14. Congenital hypothyroidism can lead to intellectual disability if untreated.
  15. Birth asphyxia can cause multi-organ damage in newborns.
  16. Intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) is common in preterm infants.
  17. Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a serious intestinal condition in preterm infants.
  18. Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) is a heart condition common in preemies.
  19. Neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) occurs due to maternal drug use during pregnancy.
  20. Brachial plexus injury may occur from birth trauma, causing arm weakness.

7. Feeding Issues in Newborns

  1. Poor latch can cause breastfeeding difficulties.
  2. Tongue-tie (ankyloglossia) may interfere with breastfeeding.
  3. Gastroesophageal reflux (GERD) causes spitting up in infants.
  4. Failure to thrive (FTT) may indicate feeding or medical issues.
  5. Galactosemia is a metabolic disorder requiring lactose-free formula.
  6. Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) requires special dietary management.

8. Premature and High-Risk Newborn Care

  1. Premature babies need temperature regulation, feeding support, and infection prevention.
  2. Surfactant therapy is used for respiratory distress in preterm infants.
  3. Kangaroo mother care (KMC) is beneficial for preterm infants.
  4. Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) is an eye condition in preterm babies needing regular screening.
  5. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) affects premature infants needing long-term oxygen.
  6. Apnea of prematurity involves pauses in breathing due to immature brainstem function.
  7. Developmental care in NICU improves outcomes for preterm infants.

9. Congenital Anomalies

  1. Cleft lip and palate affect feeding and require surgical repair.
  2. Congenital heart defects may present with cyanosis or heart murmurs.
  3. Neural tube defects include spina bifida, which can cause paralysis.
  4. Down syndrome is associated with hypotonia, congenital heart defects, and intellectual disability.
  5. Gastroschisis and omphalocele are abdominal wall defects seen at birth.
  6. Clubfoot (talipes equinovarus) requires early orthopedic management.
  7. Congenital diaphragmatic hernia can cause respiratory distress at birth.

BEHAVIOURAL DISORDERS.

Pica

  1. Pica is the persistent eating of non-nutritive substances like dirt, clay, or paper.
  2. Common in children aged 2–3 years, often due to nutritional deficiencies.
  3. Iron deficiency anemia is commonly associated with pica.
  4. Zinc deficiency may also trigger pica behavior.
  5. Pica is diagnosed when behavior persists for at least one month.
  6. More prevalent in children with developmental disabilities.
  7. Lead poisoning risk increases with pica, especially when ingesting paint chips.
  8. Behavioral therapy is the primary treatment.
  9. Parental education helps manage and prevent pica.
  10. Complications include intestinal obstruction, infections, and poisoning.
  11. Pica during pregnancy can indicate underlying mineral deficiencies.
  12. Geophagia refers specifically to eating soil or clay.
  13. Pagophagia is the compulsive eating of ice, linked to iron deficiency.
  14. Amylophagia involves the consumption of starch, often raw.
  15. Trichophagia (eating hair) can lead to trichobezoars in the intestine.
  16. Psychological evaluation is necessary in persistent cases.
  17. Early intervention reduces the risk of long-term complications.
  18. Family therapy can be beneficial in managing environmental triggers.
  19. Supervision of play areas helps reduce exposure to harmful substances.
  20. Cultural practices can sometimes normalize pica, requiring sensitive handling.

Breath-Holding Spells

  1. Breath-holding spells are brief episodes where a child stops breathing, often after crying.
  2. Common in children aged 6 months to 6 years.
  3. Two types: cyanotic (common) and pallid.
  4. Cyanotic spells occur after frustration or anger.
  5. Pallid spells are triggered by fear, pain, or minor injury.
  6. Spells are involuntary and self-limiting.
  7. Iron deficiency anemia is associated with breath-holding spells.
  8. Spells may cause brief unconsciousness, but are harmless in most cases.
  9. No long-term effects on brain development.
  10. Reassurance of parents is crucial.
  11. EEG is unnecessary unless seizures are suspected.
  12. Iron supplementation may reduce the frequency of spells.
  13. Physical injury during falls is a potential risk.
  14. Avoid triggering situations when possible.
  15. Breath-holding spells are not the same as seizures.

Temper Tantrums

  1. Temper tantrums are sudden outbursts of anger or frustration.
  2. Common between 1–4 years of age.
  3. Result from frustration over unmet needs or inability to communicate.
  4. Normal developmental behavior as children assert independence.
  5. Tantrums may involve screaming, crying, kicking, or hitting.
  6. Ignoring the behavior can be an effective response.
  7. Consistent routines help reduce tantrum frequency.
  8. Positive reinforcement encourages desired behaviors.
  9. Physical punishment is ineffective and discouraged.
  10. Red flags: tantrums after age 6 or self-injury during episodes.
  11. Tantrums lasting >15 minutes may require evaluation.
  12. Fatigue and hunger are common triggers.
  13. Teach coping strategies as language skills develop.
  14. Stay calm during tantrums to model appropriate behavior.
  15. Tantrums are not attention-seeking but emotional dysregulation.

Enuresis

  1. Enuresis is involuntary urination, especially during sleep.
  2. Primary enuresis means the child never achieved dryness.
  3. Secondary enuresis occurs after a period of dryness.
  4. Nocturnal enuresis is bedwetting during sleep.
  5. Daytime enuresis is also known as diurnal enuresis.
  6. Common in children under 5 years old.
  7. Family history increases risk.
  8. Most cases resolve without treatment.
  9. Enuresis alarms are first-line therapy.
  10. Desmopressin reduces nighttime urine production.
  11. Rule out UTI if enuresis is new or with other symptoms.
  12. Constipation can contribute to enuresis.
  13. Avoid punishment for bedwetting.
  14. Fluid restriction before bedtime may help.
  15. Bladder training exercises can be effective.

Nail Biting (Onychophagia)

  1. Nail biting is a common habit in children and adolescents.
  2. Linked to anxiety, stress, or boredom.
  3. Often starts in early childhood.
  4. Can cause nail infections and dental issues.
  5. Bitter-tasting nail polish discourages the habit.
  6. Positive reinforcement is more effective than punishment.
  7. Stress management techniques help reduce nail biting.
  8. Habit reversal therapy is effective in persistent cases.
  9. Underlying anxiety disorders may require evaluation.
  10. Usually resolves without intervention in adolescence.

Thumb Sucking

  1. Thumb sucking is a self-soothing behavior common in infants.
  2. Normal until 3–4 years; concern if persistent beyond 5.
  3. Prolonged thumb sucking can cause dental malocclusion.
  4. Positive reinforcement helps stop the habit.
  5. Bitter-tasting solutions discourage thumb sucking.
  6. Thumb guards can be used in older children.
  7. Often linked to emotional stress or anxiety.
  8. Distraction techniques reduce the frequency.
  9. Parental reassurance is important.
  10. Dental consultation if dental changes occur.

Helminthic Infestations

  1. Common in areas with poor sanitation.
  2. Roundworms, hookworms, and whipworms are common types.
  3. Symptoms include abdominal pain, anemia, and weight loss.
  4. Perianal itching is a sign of pinworm infection.
  5. Albendazole or mebendazole are first-line treatments.
  6. Hand hygiene prevents reinfection.
  7. Mass deworming programs reduce prevalence.
  8. Eggs transmitted via contaminated food, water, or soil.
  9. Tape test helps diagnose pinworm infection.
  10. Regular deworming recommended in endemic areas.
  11. Complications include intestinal obstruction or malnutrition.
  12. Education on hygiene reduces recurrence.
  13. Boiling drinking water prevents infection.
  14. Barefoot walking increases risk of hookworm infection.
  15. Iron deficiency anemia may result from hookworm infestation.

Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa

  1. Anorexia nervosa involves restrictive eating and fear of gaining weight.
  2. Common in adolescent girls.
  3. Symptoms include weight loss, amenorrhea, and distorted body image.
  4. Bulimia nervosa involves binge eating followed by purging.
  5. Purging methods include vomiting, laxatives, or excessive exercise.
  6. Electrolyte imbalances are common in bulimia.
  7. Bradycardia and hypotension occur in anorexia due to malnutrition.
  8. Body dysmorphia is present in both disorders.
  9. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is the treatment of choice.
  10. Hospitalization required for severe cases.
  11. High mortality rate in anorexia due to cardiac complications.
  12. Family therapy is effective in adolescents.
  13. SSRIs may help with bulimia.
  14. Bone density loss is a long-term complication in anorexia.
  15. Lanugo (fine hair growth) occurs in severe malnutrition.
  16. Avoiding trigger foods helps manage bulimia.
  17. Multidisciplinary approach is key in treatment.
  18. Perfectionism and control issues are common traits in anorexia.
  19. Bulimia often maintains normal body weight.
  20. Frequent vomiting leads to dental erosion.

Failure to Thrive (FTT)

  1. FTT is inadequate growth in infants or children.
  2. Classified as organic or non-organic.
  3. Organic causes include chronic diseases.
  4. Non-organic FTT often due to neglect or poor feeding.
  5. Weight-for-age below the 5th percentile indicates FTT.
  6. Nutritional assessment is critical.
  7. Developmental delays may accompany FTT.
  8. Multidisciplinary team manages complex cases.
  9. Frequent follow-up needed to monitor growth.
  10. Behavioral interventions improve feeding habits.
  11. Parental education on feeding practices is key.
  12. Hospitalization for severe cases.
  13. Calorie-dense foods help promote weight gain.
  14. Growth charts are used for monitoring.
  15. Screen for abuse or neglect in unexplained cases.

Diarrhea

  1. Diarrhea is the passage of loose, watery stools.
  2. Acute diarrhea lasts less than 14 days.
  3. Common cause: rotavirus in children.
  4. Dehydration is the main complication.
  5. Oral rehydration solution (ORS) is first-line treatment.
  6. Zinc supplementation reduces duration and severity.
  7. Continue breastfeeding during diarrhea.
  8. No antibiotics unless specific bacterial infection is confirmed.
  9. Persistent diarrhea lasts more than 14 days.
  10. Probiotics may help in some cases.
  11. Rotavirus vaccine prevents severe diarrhea.
  12. Signs of dehydration: sunken eyes, dry mouth, poor skin turgor.
  13. Intravenous fluids for severe dehydration.
  14. Hand hygiene prevents spread.
  15. Contaminated water is a major cause in developing countries.

Child Abuse

  1. Child abuse includes physical, emotional, sexual abuse, and neglect.
  2. Red flags: inconsistent history, delayed medical care.
  3. Bruises in unusual locations may indicate abuse.
  4. Bite marks, burns, fractures are suspicious injuries.
  5. Shaken baby syndrome causes retinal hemorrhages and brain injury.
  6. Mandatory reporting laws exist for suspected abuse.
  7. Emotional abuse affects self-esteem and development.
  8. Neglect is the most common form of child maltreatment.
  9. Sexual abuse signs include inappropriate sexual behavior or knowledge.
  10. Trust-building is essential when interviewing abused children.
  11. Multidisciplinary approach for management.
  12. Abuse can lead to long-term mental health issues.
  13. Cultural sensitivity is important when assessing suspected abuse.
  14. Photographic evidence is useful for documentation.
  15. Early intervention reduces long-term effects.
  16. Medical evaluation should be thorough and non-judgmental.
  17. Physical signs may be absent in sexual abuse.
  18. Behavioral changes can indicate emotional trauma.
  19. Safe environment is crucial post-identification.
  20. Parental counseling may prevent recurrence.

Somnambulism (Sleepwalking)

  1. Somnambulism is walking during deep sleep.
  2. Common in children aged 4–8 years.
  3. Usually outgrown by adolescence.
  4. Triggers include sleep deprivation and stress.
  5. Ensure safety to prevent injuries during episodes.
  6. Avoid waking the child abruptly during an episode.
  7. Sleep hygiene reduces frequency.
  8. Family history increases risk.
  9. Reassurance for parents is often sufficient.
  10. Rare cases may require medical evaluation.

Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM)

  1. PEM includes marasmus and kwashiorkor.
  2. Marasmus involves severe wasting due to calorie deficiency.
  3. Kwashiorkor shows edema due to protein deficiency.
  4. Common in developing countries.
  5. Hair changes, skin lesions, and growth failure are signs.
  6. Management involves gradual nutritional rehabilitation.
  7. Micronutrient deficiencies often coexist.
  8. Infections are common due to weakened immunity.
  9. Breastfeeding prevents malnutrition in infants.
  10. Community programs are key in prevention.

Bites and Stings

  1. Animal bites risk rabies and tetanus.
  2. Wash wounds thoroughly with soap and water.
  3. Rabies vaccine needed for high-risk bites.
  4. Snake bites may require antivenom.
  5. Bee stings can cause anaphylaxis.
  6. Remove stingers promptly.
  7. Cold compresses reduce swelling.
  8. Antihistamines for mild allergic reactions.
  9. Seek medical care for severe reactions.
  10. Tetanus prophylaxis may be needed after bites.

Important One-Liner Points on Congenital Disorders

1. Cardiovascular System

  1. Congenital heart defects (CHDs) are the most common congenital anomalies.
  2. Ventricular septal defect (VSD) is the most common CHD.
  3. Atrial septal defect (ASD) often presents with a systolic murmur.
  4. Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) is common in preterm infants.
  5. Tetralogy of Fallot includes VSD, pulmonary stenosis, overriding aorta, and right ventricular hypertrophy.
  6. “Blue spells” or “tet spells” are seen in cyanotic heart diseases like Tetralogy of Fallot.
  7. Coarctation of the aorta presents with hypertension in the upper limbs and weak pulses in the lower limbs.
  8. Transposition of the great arteries (TGA) causes severe cyanosis at birth.
  9. Hypoplastic left heart syndrome is fatal without early intervention.
  10. Eisenmenger syndrome is the reversal of a left-to-right shunt causing cyanosis.
  11. Down syndrome is associated with atrioventricular septal defects.
  12. Cyanotic heart defects include TOF, TGA, truncus arteriosus, tricuspid atresia, and TAPVR.
  13. Ductus-dependent lesions require prostaglandin E1 to maintain ductal patency.
  14. Bicuspid aortic valve is the most common congenital valve anomaly.
  15. Congenital long QT syndrome increases the risk of sudden cardiac death.
  16. Heart murmur is often the first sign of CHD in newborns.
  17. Fetal echocardiography is used for prenatal detection of heart defects.
  18. Pulse oximetry screening helps detect critical CHDs in newborns.
  19. DiGeorge syndrome is associated with interrupted aortic arch.
  20. Turner syndrome is associated with coarctation of the aorta.

2. Respiratory System

  1. Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) causes respiratory distress at birth.
  2. Bochdalek hernia is the most common type of CDH.
  3. Tracheoesophageal fistula (TEF) often presents with choking and coughing during feeds.
  4. Esophageal atresia is commonly associated with TEF.
  5. VACTERL association includes vertebral, anal, cardiac, tracheoesophageal, renal, and limb anomalies.
  6. Congenital lobar emphysema causes hyperinflation of lung lobes.
  7. Pulmonary hypoplasia occurs in conditions like oligohydramnios.
  8. Choanal atresia causes nasal obstruction in newborns.
  9. Pierre Robin sequence includes micrognathia, glossoptosis, and airway obstruction.
  10. Congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation (CCAM) is a lung malformation causing respiratory distress.
  11. Surfactant deficiency leads to respiratory distress syndrome in preterm infants.
  12. Bronchopulmonary sequestration is non-functioning lung tissue with an abnormal blood supply.
  13. Laryngomalacia is the most common cause of stridor in infants.
  14. Congenital pulmonary airway malformation (CPAM) is a cystic lung lesion present at birth.
  15. Oligohydramnios sequence includes pulmonary hypoplasia, limb deformities, and facial anomalies.

3. Gastrointestinal System

  1. Cleft lip and palate are common craniofacial congenital anomalies.
  2. Esophageal atresia with TEF presents with polyhydramnios prenatally.
  3. Pyloric stenosis causes projectile vomiting in infants.
  4. Duodenal atresia shows a “double bubble” sign on X-ray.
  5. Annular pancreas can cause duodenal obstruction.
  6. Hirschsprung disease is due to the absence of ganglion cells in the colon.
  7. Meconium ileus is associated with cystic fibrosis.
  8. Gastroschisis involves bowel herniation without a covering sac.
  9. Omphalocele is a midline abdominal wall defect with a sac.
  10. Intestinal malrotation can lead to volvulus and obstruction.
  11. Imperforate anus presents with absent anal opening at birth.
  12. Biliary atresia causes prolonged jaundice in infants.
  13. Choledochal cysts present with jaundice, abdominal pain, and a palpable mass.
  14. Meckel’s diverticulum can cause painless rectal bleeding in children.
  15. Congenital diaphragmatic hernia may cause abdominal contents to herniate into the chest.
  16. Tracheoesophageal anomalies can lead to aspiration pneumonia.
  17. Infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis is more common in first-born males.
  18. Pancreatic divisum is a congenital anomaly of the pancreatic ducts.
  19. Jejunal and ileal atresia cause bilious vomiting in neonates.
  20. Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome is associated with omphalocele, macroglossia, and gigantism.

4. Genitourinary System

  1. Hypospadias is a urethral opening on the underside of the penis.
  2. Cryptorchidism is undescended testicles, increasing the risk of infertility and cancer.
  3. Posterior urethral valves cause bladder outlet obstruction in males.
  4. Vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) leads to recurrent urinary tract infections.
  5. Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is a genetic disorder causing kidney cysts.
  6. Horseshoe kidney is the most common renal fusion anomaly.
  7. Renal agenesis can be unilateral or bilateral; bilateral is fatal.
  8. Bladder exstrophy is a congenital defect where the bladder is exposed outside the body.
  9. Prune belly syndrome includes deficient abdominal muscles, undescended testes, and urinary tract anomalies.
  10. Wilms tumor is a common childhood renal cancer associated with congenital anomalies.
  11. Ambiguous genitalia requires urgent evaluation for congenital adrenal hyperplasia.
  12. Hydronephrosis is the dilation of the renal pelvis and calyces.
  13. Epispadias is a dorsal displacement of the urethral opening.
  14. Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser (MRKH) syndrome causes congenital absence of the uterus and upper vagina.
  15. Multicystic dysplastic kidney (MCDK) is a non-functioning kidney with multiple cysts.
  16. Urachal anomalies may present with umbilical discharge.
  17. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) leads to ambiguous genitalia in genetic females.
  18. Megacystis-microcolon-intestinal hypoperistalsis syndrome causes severe abdominal distension in neonates.
  19. Posterior urethral valves are the most common cause of urinary obstruction in male neonates.
  20. Turner syndrome often presents with streak ovaries and primary amenorrhea.

5. Musculoskeletal System

  1. Congenital talipes equinovarus (clubfoot) involves foot inversion and plantar flexion.
  2. Developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) is detected by Barlow and Ortolani tests.
  3. Achondroplasia is a common cause of dwarfism due to FGFR3 mutation.
  4. Osteogenesis imperfecta causes brittle bones and blue sclerae.
  5. Polydactyly refers to extra fingers or toes.
  6. Syndactyly is the fusion of fingers or toes.
  7. Amniotic band syndrome causes limb deformities due to constriction bands.
  8. Marfan syndrome affects connective tissue, leading to tall stature and joint laxity.
  9. Scoliosis is lateral curvature of the spine, often idiopathic.
  10. Congenital muscular torticollis causes head tilt due to sternocleidomastoid tightness.
  11. Thanatophoric dysplasia is a lethal skeletal dysplasia.
  12. Ehlers-Danlos syndrome causes hypermobile joints and fragile skin.
  13. Cleidocranial dysplasia results in absent clavicles and delayed tooth eruption.
  14. Congenital limb deficiency may be transverse or longitudinal.
  15. Spina bifida is a neural tube defect causing spinal cord malformations.

6. Nervous System

  1. Anencephaly is a fatal neural tube defect with absence of the brain and skull.
  2. Spina bifida occulta is a hidden defect without external sac.
  3. Meningocele involves herniation of meninges through a spinal defect.
  4. Myelomeningocele includes herniation of the spinal cord and meninges.
  5. Hydrocephalus is an accumulation of CSF causing head enlargement.
  6. Chiari malformation is a structural defect at the base of the skull.
  7. Dandy-Walker malformation involves cerebellar hypoplasia and hydrocephalus.
  8. Holoprosencephaly is incomplete separation of the cerebral hemispheres.
  9. Microcephaly is a small head size due to brain development issues.
  10. Macrocephaly can result from hydrocephalus or megalencephaly.
  11. Congenital toxoplasmosis causes intracranial calcifications and hydrocephalus.
  12. Craniosynostosis is premature fusion of skull sutures.
  13. Lissencephaly results in a smooth brain surface without normal folds.
  14. Porencephaly involves cysts or cavities in the brain.
  15. Periventricular leukomalacia is white matter injury in preterm infants.
  16. Neural tube defects are preventable with folic acid supplementation.
  17. Septo-optic dysplasia affects optic nerves and pituitary gland.
  18. Agenesis of the corpus callosum may cause developmental delays.
  19. Congenital muscular dystrophy presents with hypotonia in infancy.
  20. Arnold-Chiari malformation is associated with spina bifida.

7. Endocrine System

  1. Congenital hypothyroidism causes intellectual disability if untreated.
  2. Neonatal screening detects congenital hypothyroidism early.
  3. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) causes cortisol deficiency and virilization.
  4. Hypopituitarism leads to growth hormone deficiency.
  5. Thyroid dysgenesis is the most common cause of congenital hypothyroidism.
  6. Hyperinsulinism causes persistent hypoglycemia in newborns.
  7. Pseudohypoparathyroidism leads to hypocalcemia with normal PTH levels.
  8. McCune-Albright syndrome causes precocious puberty.
  9. Turner syndrome is associated with gonadal dysgenesis.
  10. DiGeorge syndrome involves hypocalcemia due to parathyroid hypoplasia.

8. Hematologic and Immune System

  1. Thalassemia major presents with anemia and requires lifelong transfusions.
  2. Sickle cell disease causes vaso-occlusive crises and anemia.
  3. Hemophilia A is a deficiency of factor VIII.
  4. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency causes hemolytic anemia.
  5. Hereditary spherocytosis causes hemolytic anemia with splenomegaly.
  6. Congenital neutropenia increases infection risk.
  7. Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome presents with eczema, thrombocytopenia, and immunodeficiency.
  8. Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) causes life-threatening infections.
  9. DiGeorge syndrome involves T-cell immunodeficiency.
  10. Fanconi anemia is associated with bone marrow failure and congenital anomalies.

Important One-Liner Points on Common Pediatric Diseases and Disorders

1. Respiratory System Disorders

  1. Bronchiolitis is the most common lower respiratory tract infection in infants, often caused by RSV.
  2. Croup presents with a barking cough and stridor, commonly due to parainfluenza virus.
  3. Asthma is characterized by reversible airway obstruction and wheezing.
  4. Pneumonia in children is most commonly caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae.
  5. Foreign body aspiration presents with sudden onset cough, wheezing, or stridor.
  6. Cystic fibrosis causes thick mucus leading to recurrent lung infections and malabsorption.
  7. Pertussis (whooping cough) is caused by Bordetella pertussis and presents with paroxysmal cough.
  8. Acute otitis media is commonly caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae.
  9. Sinusitis presents with facial pain, nasal congestion, and purulent discharge.
  10. Lung abscess is a localized collection of pus in the lung, often following pneumonia.
  11. Epiglottitis is a life-threatening emergency caused by Haemophilus influenzae type B.
  12. Allergic rhinitis presents with sneezing, nasal congestion, and itchy eyes.
  13. Pulmonary tuberculosis presents with chronic cough, weight loss, and fever.
  14. Pleural effusion in children often results from pneumonia or TB.
  15. Empyema is pus in the pleural cavity, often following pneumonia.
  16. Bronchiectasis involves permanent dilation of bronchi, often due to recurrent infections.
  17. Vocal cord dysfunction mimics asthma but has inspiratory stridor instead of wheezing.
  18. Interstitial lung disease in children presents with chronic cough and breathlessness.
  19. Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency can cause early-onset emphysema.
  20. Spontaneous pneumothorax presents with sudden chest pain and breathlessness.
  21. Mediastinal masses may cause respiratory distress due to airway compression.
  22. Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) is common in preterm infants due to surfactant deficiency.
  23. Primary ciliary dyskinesia causes recurrent respiratory infections due to impaired mucociliary clearance.
  24. Recurrent wheezing can be due to asthma, GERD, or immune deficiencies.
  25. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is a chronic lung disease in preterm infants.

2. Cardiovascular System Disorders

  1. Rheumatic fever is a sequela of streptococcal pharyngitis, causing carditis and joint pain.
  2. Kawasaki disease causes coronary artery aneurysms if untreated.
  3. Hypertension in children is often secondary to renal disease.
  4. Infective endocarditis presents with fever, murmur, and splinter hemorrhages.
  5. Pericarditis presents with chest pain relieved by leaning forward.
  6. Myocarditis can cause heart failure following viral infections.
  7. Coarctation of the aorta presents with differential BP in upper and lower limbs.
  8. Congestive heart failure (CHF) in infants presents with poor feeding, sweating, and tachypnea.
  9. Supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) is the most common arrhythmia in children.
  10. Bradyarrhythmias can result from congenital heart block.
  11. Dilated cardiomyopathy causes heart failure and arrhythmias.
  12. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy increases the risk of sudden cardiac death in athletes.
  13. Vasovagal syncope is the most common cause of fainting in adolescents.
  14. Long QT syndrome increases the risk of life-threatening arrhythmias.
  15. Pericardial effusion can progress to cardiac tamponade.
  16. Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) presents with a continuous “machinery” murmur.
  17. Eisenmenger syndrome is a complication of untreated heart defects with left-to-right shunt.
  18. Atrial septal defect (ASD) often presents with a fixed split of the second heart sound.
  19. Heart murmurs are common in children and often innocent.
  20. Hyperlipidemia can be familial and increase the risk of early cardiovascular disease.

3. Gastrointestinal System Disorders

  1. Gastroenteritis is most commonly caused by rotavirus in children.
  2. Hepatitis A is the most common viral hepatitis in children.
  3. Appendicitis presents with right lower quadrant pain and rebound tenderness.
  4. Intussusception causes intermittent colicky pain and “currant jelly” stools.
  5. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) causes regurgitation and poor weight gain.
  6. Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder triggered by gluten.
  7. Lactose intolerance causes bloating, diarrhea, and gas after dairy consumption.
  8. Functional constipation is common in toddlers due to withholding behavior.
  9. Infantile colic causes excessive crying in otherwise healthy infants.
  10. Biliary atresia presents with prolonged jaundice in neonates.
  11. Wilson’s disease causes copper accumulation in the liver and brain.
  12. Autoimmune hepatitis presents with elevated liver enzymes and positive autoantibodies.
  13. Peptic ulcer disease may cause abdominal pain relieved by food.
  14. Hirschsprung disease causes delayed meconium passage and constipation.
  15. Malrotation with volvulus presents with bilious vomiting and surgical emergency.
  16. Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) occurs in preterm infants causing bowel necrosis.
  17. Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) presents with diarrhea, anemia, and kidney failure.
  18. Meckel’s diverticulum causes painless rectal bleeding.
  19. Pancreatitis in children can be caused by trauma, infections, or medications.
  20. Short bowel syndrome results from extensive intestinal resection.
  21. Crohn’s disease presents with abdominal pain, diarrhea, and growth failure.
  22. Ulcerative colitis causes bloody diarrhea and abdominal cramps.
  23. Allergic colitis in infants presents with blood-streaked stools.
  24. Ascariasis can cause intestinal obstruction in children.
  25. Rectal prolapse is common in cystic fibrosis and chronic constipation.

4. Genitourinary System Disorders

  1. Urinary tract infections (UTIs) present with fever, dysuria, and abdominal pain.
  2. Nephrotic syndrome causes proteinuria, edema, and hypoalbuminemia.
  3. Acute glomerulonephritis follows streptococcal infections causing hematuria and hypertension.
  4. Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) causes acute kidney injury in children after E. coli infection.
  5. Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) causes multiple renal cysts and hypertension.
  6. Hypospadias is a congenital anomaly with the urethral opening on the underside of the penis.
  7. Cryptorchidism increases the risk of testicular cancer.
  8. Enuresis is involuntary urination, common at night in children over 5 years.
  9. Posterior urethral valves cause obstructive uropathy in male infants.
  10. Nephrolithiasis (kidney stones) may present with flank pain and hematuria.
  11. Wilms tumor is the most common kidney cancer in children.
  12. Hydronephrosis is the dilation of the renal pelvis and calyces.
  13. Vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) causes recurrent UTIs.
  14. Bladder exstrophy is a congenital defect where the bladder is exposed outside the body.
  15. Phimosis is the inability to retract the foreskin.
  16. Paraphimosis is a urologic emergency where the retracted foreskin cannot return to its normal position.
  17. Orchitis is inflammation of the testes, often due to mumps.
  18. Testicular torsion presents with sudden scrotal pain and requires emergency surgery.
  19. Henoch-Schönlein purpura (HSP) causes kidney involvement along with purpura and joint pain.
  20. Rhabdomyosarcoma can affect the bladder or genitourinary tract.

5. Hematologic and Oncologic Disorders

  1. Iron deficiency anemia is the most common anemia in children.
  2. Thalassemia major requires lifelong blood transfusions.
  3. Sickle cell disease causes vaso-occlusive crises and anemia.
  4. Hemophilia A is a deficiency of factor VIII, causing prolonged bleeding.
  5. Immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP) causes isolated low platelet count.
  6. Leukemia is the most common childhood cancer, especially ALL.
  7. Hodgkin lymphoma presents with painless lymphadenopathy.
  8. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is more aggressive but highly curable.
  9. Aplastic anemia causes pancytopenia due to bone marrow failure.
  10. G6PD deficiency causes hemolytic anemia triggered by certain drugs or foods.
  11. Hereditary spherocytosis causes hemolytic anemia with splenomegaly.
  12. Polycythemia can cause hyperviscosity symptoms in newborns.
  13. Hemolytic disease of the newborn is due to Rh incompatibility.
  14. Beta-thalassemia trait often presents as mild anemia.
  15. Bone marrow aspiration is diagnostic for leukemia.
  16. Langerhans cell histiocytosis can affect bones, skin, and other organs.
  17. Neuroblastoma is a common adrenal gland tumor in children.
  18. Retinoblastoma presents with leukocoria (white pupil reflex).
  19. Tumor lysis syndrome is a complication of cancer treatment causing electrolyte imbalance.
  20. Vitamin K deficiency leads to bleeding disorders in newborns.

6. Nervous System Disorders

  1. Seizures are common in children, with febrile seizures being the most frequent type.
  2. Epilepsy is defined as two or more unprovoked seizures.
  3. Meningitis presents with fever, headache, neck stiffness, and photophobia.
  4. Encephalitis causes altered mental status and seizures.
  5. Cerebral palsy is a non-progressive motor disorder due to brain injury.
  6. Hydrocephalus is the accumulation of CSF causing increased head size.
  7. Migraine in children may present with abdominal pain and vomiting.
  8. Tension headaches are the most common type of headache in children.
  9. Guillain-Barré syndrome causes ascending paralysis.
  10. Duchenne muscular dystrophy causes progressive muscle weakness in boys.
  11. Spina bifida is a neural tube defect with spinal cord involvement.
  12. Neurofibromatosis type 1 presents with café-au-lait spots and neurofibromas.
  13. Brain tumors are the most common solid tumors in children.
  14. Tuberous sclerosis causes seizures, developmental delay, and skin lesions.
  15. West syndrome presents with infantile spasms and developmental regression.
  16. Aicardi syndrome is associated with infantile spasms and agenesis of the corpus callosum.
  17. Benign rolandic epilepsy is common in school-age children.
  18. Absence seizures cause brief lapses in consciousness.
  19. Rett syndrome affects girls with regression after normal development.
  20. Tourette syndrome causes motor and vocal tics.
  21. Syncope in children is often vasovagal and benign.
  22. Optic neuritis can be an early sign of multiple sclerosis.
  23. Arnold-Chiari malformation causes headaches and balance problems.
  24. Landau-Kleffner syndrome presents with language regression and seizures.
  25. Friedreich ataxia causes progressive gait and coordination issues.

7. Infectious Diseases

  1. Measles presents with fever, cough, conjunctivitis, and Koplik spots.
  2. Mumps causes parotid gland swelling and can lead to orchitis.
  3. Rubella causes mild rash and congenital defects if acquired during pregnancy.
  4. Varicella (chickenpox) causes vesicular rash in different stages.
  5. Scarlet fever is caused by Streptococcus pyogenes with a sandpaper-like rash.
  6. Hand-foot-and-mouth disease is caused by coxsackievirus.
  7. Roseola infantum causes high fever followed by rash after defervescence.
  8. Diphtheria presents with a gray pseudomembrane in the throat.
  9. Tetanus causes muscle rigidity and spasms.
  10. Poliomyelitis causes acute flaccid paralysis.
  11. Lyme disease causes erythema migrans and joint pain.
  12. Rocky Mountain spotted fever presents with fever and rash starting on wrists and ankles.
  13. Malaria causes cyclical fevers and is diagnosed with blood smears.
  14. Typhoid fever presents with prolonged fever and rose spots.
  15. Tuberculosis (TB) in children often affects lymph nodes and lungs.
  16. Hepatitis B can cause chronic liver disease.
  17. Influenza causes high fever, cough, and myalgia.
  18. COVID-19 can cause multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C).
  19. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) causes infectious mononucleosis.
  20. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) can cause congenital infections with hearing loss.

8. Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders

  1. Type 1 diabetes mellitus is the most common endocrine disorder in children.
  2. Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) presents with dehydration, acidosis, and altered mental status.
  3. Congenital hypothyroidism can cause intellectual disability if untreated.
  4. Growth hormone deficiency leads to short stature in children.
  5. Precocious puberty is the early onset of secondary sexual characteristics.
  6. Delayed puberty is the absence of puberty by age 13 in girls and 14 in boys.
  7. Hyperthyroidism in children causes weight loss, irritability, and tremors.
  8. Obesity in children increases the risk of type 2 diabetes.
  9. Hypoglycemia presents with sweating, irritability, and seizures.
  10. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) causes ambiguous genitalia in girls.
  11. Rickets is caused by vitamin D deficiency leading to bone deformities.
  12. Cushing’s syndrome in children causes obesity, growth failure, and hypertension.
  13. Galactosemia is a metabolic disorder causing jaundice and liver dysfunction.
  14. Phenylketonuria (PKU) causes intellectual disability if untreated with dietary restrictions.
  15. Maple syrup urine disease causes sweet-smelling urine and neurological symptoms.
  16. Hypoparathyroidism causes hypocalcemia with tetany.
  17. Hyperparathyroidism can lead to hypercalcemia and bone pain.
  18. Neonatal hypoglycemia is common in infants of diabetic mothers.
  19. Turner syndrome is associated with short stature and ovarian failure.
  20. Klinefelter syndrome presents with tall stature and hypogonadism in boys.

9. Dermatological Disorders

  1. Atopic dermatitis (eczema) causes itchy, inflamed skin.
  2. Impetigo is a contagious skin infection with honey-colored crusts.
  3. Tinea capitis is a fungal infection of the scalp causing hair loss.
  4. Scabies causes intense itching, especially at night.
  5. Psoriasis presents with well-demarcated red plaques with silvery scales.
  6. Acne vulgaris is common in adolescents due to hormonal changes.
  7. Seborrheic dermatitis causes greasy, scaly patches, especially on the scalp.
  8. Vitiligo is characterized by depigmented patches of skin.
  9. Contact dermatitis occurs due to irritant or allergic reactions.
  10. Urticaria (hives) presents with transient, itchy welts.
  11. Molluscum contagiosum causes small, pearly papules with central umbilication.
  12. Warts are caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV).
  13. Chickenpox scars can occur if lesions are scratched.
  14. Erythema multiforme presents with target-like lesions.
  15. Kawasaki disease causes a polymorphous rash and mucosal changes.
  16. Pityriasis rosea starts with a herald patch followed by a Christmas tree pattern rash.
  17. Hand-foot-mouth disease causes a vesicular rash on hands, feet, and mouth.
  18. Lichen planus presents with purple, polygonal, pruritic papules.
  19. Drug reactions can cause widespread skin rashes in children.
  20. Henoch-Schönlein purpura (HSP) causes palpable purpura on the lower extremities.

10. Musculoskeletal Disorders

  1. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) is the most common chronic rheumatic disease in children.
  2. Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease causes avascular necrosis of the femoral head.
  3. Slipped capital femoral epiphysis (SCFE) causes hip pain in obese adolescents.
  4. Osgood-Schlatter disease causes knee pain due to tibial tubercle inflammation.
  5. Rickets causes bowing of the legs due to vitamin D deficiency.

Important One-Liner Points for Pediatric Emergency, CPR, Drugs, Welfare Services, and National Health Programs

1. Pediatric Emergency Care

  1. ABC (Airway, Breathing, Circulation) is the priority in pediatric emergencies.
  2. Tachycardia is often the first sign of shock in children.
  3. Bradycardia in children is often due to hypoxia.
  4. Capillary refill time >2 seconds indicates poor perfusion.
  5. Hypovolemic shock is the most common type in children.
  6. Septic shock presents with fever, hypotension, and poor perfusion.
  7. Neonatal sepsis often presents with poor feeding and lethargy.
  8. Anaphylaxis requires immediate intramuscular epinephrine.
  9. Croup with stridor is managed with nebulized epinephrine and steroids.
  10. Status epilepticus is a medical emergency with continuous seizures >5 minutes.
  11. Seizures are managed with IV lorazepam as the first-line drug.
  12. Head injury in children can present with vomiting, drowsiness, and seizures.
  13. Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) assesses the level of consciousness in head injuries.
  14. Increased intracranial pressure (ICP) presents with bradycardia, hypertension, and irregular breathing.
  15. Pneumothorax presents with sudden respiratory distress and unilateral chest expansion.
  16. Foreign body aspiration causes sudden onset of coughing, choking, or wheezing.
  17. Dehydration is classified as mild, moderate, or severe.
  18. Oral rehydration therapy (ORT) is the first-line treatment for mild dehydration.
  19. IV fluids (normal saline or Ringer’s lactate) are used in severe dehydration.
  20. Dextrose-containing fluids are avoided initially in shock resuscitation.
  21. Hypoglycemia presents with jitteriness, irritability, and seizures in infants.
  22. Hyperkalemia in emergencies is treated with calcium gluconate, insulin, and glucose.
  23. Asthma exacerbation is managed with nebulized salbutamol and corticosteroids.
  24. Drowning requires immediate airway management and oxygenation.
  25. Hypothermia is managed with rewarming techniques.
  26. Burns in children are assessed using the Lund-Browder chart.
  27. Rule of Nines is modified for children when assessing burn area.
  28. Poisoning management includes activated charcoal if within 1 hour of ingestion.
  29. Organophosphate poisoning is treated with atropine and pralidoxime.
  30. Carbon monoxide poisoning is treated with 100% oxygen therapy.
  31. Snake bites are managed with antivenom therapy if indicated.
  32. Dog bites require rabies vaccination if unvaccinated.
  33. Heat stroke presents with high body temperature, altered mental status, and dry skin.
  34. Hypovolemia in neonates is often due to dehydration or sepsis.
  35. Neonatal jaundice with signs of encephalopathy indicates kernicterus.
  36. Acute appendicitis presents with right lower quadrant pain and rebound tenderness.
  37. Intussusception presents with “currant jelly” stools and intermittent pain.
  38. Meningitis requires immediate antibiotics after lumbar puncture.
  39. Acute glomerulonephritis presents with hematuria, edema, and hypertension.
  40. Acute kidney injury (AKI) in children is managed with fluid balance and electrolyte correction.
  41. Congenital heart disease (CHD) may present with cyanosis and poor feeding.
  42. Dextrose 10% is used for neonatal hypoglycemia.
  43. Hypernatremic dehydration requires slow correction to prevent cerebral edema.
  44. Pericardial tamponade requires pericardiocentesis.
  45. Severe anemia with heart failure requires packed RBC transfusion.
  46. Tension pneumothorax is treated with needle decompression.
  47. Pediatric trauma requires the ABCDE approach: Airway, Breathing, Circulation, Disability, Exposure.
  48. Neonatal resuscitation begins with drying, warming, and clearing the airway.
  49. Apnea of prematurity is common in preterm infants and requires monitoring.
  50. Neonatal hypothermia increases the risk of sepsis and mortality.

2. Pediatric CPR

  1. Pediatric Basic Life Support (BLS) follows the CAB sequence: Compressions, Airway, Breathing.
  2. Compression-to-ventilation ratio is 30:2 for a single rescuer, 15:2 for two rescuers.
  3. Chest compressions should be at a depth of 1/3 of the chest’s anterior-posterior diameter.
  4. Compression rate is 100–120 compressions per minute.
  5. Infant CPR uses two fingers for chest compressions.
  6. Child CPR uses one or two hands depending on the child’s size.
  7. Airway management includes head tilt-chin lift unless trauma is suspected.
  8. Rescue breaths are given at one breath every 3–5 seconds.
  9. Bag-valve-mask ventilation is preferred over mouth-to-mouth in healthcare settings.
  10. Defibrillation is used for ventricular fibrillation or pulseless VT.
  11. AEDs with pediatric pads are used for children under 8 years.
  12. Reversible causes of cardiac arrest include the “Hs and Ts”: Hypoxia, Hypovolemia, Hydrogen ion (acidosis), Hypo-/Hyperkalemia, Hypothermia, Tension pneumothorax, Tamponade, Toxins, Thrombosis.
  13. Pediatric Advanced Life Support (PALS) includes medication administration and advanced airway management.
  14. Epinephrine is the drug of choice in pediatric cardiac arrest (0.01 mg/kg IV).
  15. Amiodarone is used for refractory ventricular arrhythmias.
  16. Hypoglycemia is corrected with IV dextrose during resuscitation if needed.
  17. Naloxone is used in suspected opioid overdose.
  18. Intraosseous access is used if IV access cannot be established quickly.
  19. Capnography helps confirm endotracheal tube placement.
  20. Return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) requires post-resuscitation care.
  21. Therapeutic hypothermia may be used after ROSC in some cases.
  22. High-quality CPR improves survival rates significantly.
  23. Defibrillation energy dose for children is 2–4 J/kg.
  24. Pediatric cardiac arrest is often due to respiratory causes.
  25. Ventilation rate after advanced airway placement is 1 breath every 6 seconds.
  26. Chest compression fraction should be >60% during resuscitation.
  27. Monitor pulse every 2 minutes during CPR to assess for ROSC.
  28. Check for a brachial pulse in infants during CPR.
  29. Hypothermic patients should be warmed before declaring death.
  30. Drowning victims require immediate rescue breaths.
  31. Shockable rhythms in children include VF and pulseless VT.
  32. Non-shockable rhythms include asystole and PEA (pulseless electrical activity).
  33. Fluid bolus for shock is 20 mL/kg of isotonic saline.
  34. Cardiac arrest drugs are given via IV or IO routes.
  35. Cricoid pressure is not routinely recommended during intubation.
  36. Gastric decompression reduces aspiration risk during CPR.
  37. High-flow oxygen is used in respiratory arrest.
  38. Agonal breathing is not effective and requires CPR.
  39. Unresponsive child with no breathing and no pulse requires immediate CPR.
  40. Post-arrest care includes monitoring for brain injury and organ support.
  41. Continuous chest compressions are prioritized over ventilation if trained rescuers are unavailable.
  42. Witnessed sudden collapse in older children may benefit from early defibrillation.
  43. PALS algorithms guide the management of different arrest scenarios.
  44. Shock delivery should be followed immediately by chest compressions.
  45. Mouth-to-mouth can be performed if no barrier device is available.
  46. Rescue breathing only is done if the child has a pulse but is not breathing.
  47. Bradycardia with poor perfusion requires CPR if the heart rate is <60 bpm.
  48. Chest recoil is important to allow the heart to refill between compressions.
  49. Team-based resuscitation improves outcomes with clear role assignments.
  50. Debriefing after resuscitation helps improve future performance.

3. Pediatric Drugs

  1. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is the most commonly used antipyretic in children.
  2. Ibuprofen is an NSAID used for pain and fever but not recommended in dehydration.
  3. Amoxicillin is the first-line antibiotic for many pediatric infections.
  4. Azithromycin is used for respiratory infections and atypical pneumonia.
  5. Oral rehydration salts (ORS) treat dehydration in diarrhea.
  6. Salbutamol is a bronchodilator used in asthma.
  7. Montelukast is used for long-term control of asthma.
  8. Prednisolone is a corticosteroid used in asthma exacerbations.
  9. Epinephrine is the first-line drug for anaphylaxis.
  10. IV fluids like normal saline are used for resuscitation in shock.
  11. Dextrose 10% is used to treat neonatal hypoglycemia.
  12. Phenobarbital is used to control seizures in neonates.
  13. Phenytoin is used for status epilepticus.
  14. Midazolam can be given intranasally for seizures.
  15. Ceftriaxone is a broad-spectrum antibiotic used in sepsis and meningitis.
  16. Vancomycin is used for resistant Gram-positive infections.
  17. Gentamicin is an aminoglycoside used for neonatal sepsis.
  18. Antimalarial drugs like artemether-lumefantrine are used for malaria.
  19. Albendazole is an anti-helminthic used for deworming.
  20. Ivermectin treats scabies and strongyloidiasis.
  21. Zinc supplementation reduces the duration of diarrhea.
  22. Vitamin A prevents blindness and reduces measles complications.
  23. Iron supplements treat iron deficiency anemia.
  24. Folic acid is used in megaloblastic anemia.
  25. Calcium and vitamin D supplementation prevents rickets.
  26. Insulin is the drug of choice in type 1 diabetes.
  27. Metformin is used in type 2 diabetes in adolescents.
  28. Digoxin is used for heart failure but requires careful monitoring.
  29. Furosemide is a diuretic used in heart failure.
  30. Lidocaine is used for ventricular arrhythmias.
  31. Adrenaline (epinephrine) is used in cardiac arrest.
  32. Naloxone reverses opioid overdose.
  33. Magnesium sulfate treats severe asthma and arrhythmias.
  34. Propranolol is used for infantile hemangiomas.
  35. Desmopressin is used for enuresis and diabetes insipidus.
  36. Levothyroxine is the treatment for hypothyroidism.
  37. Ranitidine is an H2 blocker used for GERD (less preferred due to safety concerns).
  38. Omeprazole is a proton pump inhibitor for acid-related disorders.
  39. Chloramphenicol is avoided due to the risk of “gray baby syndrome.”
  40. Methotrexate is used in cancer and juvenile arthritis.
  41. Cyclophosphamide is used in nephrotic syndrome and cancers.
  42. Ribavirin is used in severe RSV infections.
  43. Oseltamivir treats influenza.
  44. Vaccines are the most effective preventive drugs in pediatrics.
  45. Rotavirus vaccine prevents severe diarrhea.
  46. BCG vaccine prevents severe forms of tuberculosis.
  47. MMR vaccine protects against measles, mumps, and rubella.
  48. Hepatitis B vaccine prevents chronic hepatitis B infection.
  49. Typhoid vaccine is recommended in endemic areas.
  50. Vitamin K is given to newborns to prevent bleeding disorders.

4. Pediatric Welfare Services and National Health Programs

  1. Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) focuses on early childhood care.
  2. Anganwadi centers provide nutrition and health services to children under ICDS.
  3. Mid-Day Meal Program improves nutrition in school children.
  4. Universal Immunization Program (UIP) provides free vaccines to all children.
  5. Pulse Polio Program aims to eradicate polio.
  6. Mission Indradhanush increases vaccination coverage.
  7. Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) promotes institutional deliveries.
  8. Rashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakram (RBSK) screens for birth defects and diseases.
  9. National Health Mission (NHM) covers maternal and child health services.
  10. Vitamin A Supplementation Program prevents vitamin A deficiency.
  11. Anemia Mukt Bharat aims to reduce anemia prevalence.
  12. National Deworming Day is observed to control worm infestations.
  13. Integrated Management of Neonatal and Childhood Illness (IMNCI) reduces child mortality.
  14. Revised National Tuberculosis Control Program (RNTCP) includes pediatric TB care.
  15. Adolescent Health Program (RKSK) addresses health issues in adolescents.
  16. POSHAN Abhiyaan aims to improve nutritional outcomes in children.
  17. Childline 1098 is a helpline for children in distress.
  18. School Health Program includes health check-ups and health education.
  19. National Iron Plus Initiative provides iron supplements to children.
  20. Safe Motherhood Program improves maternal and child health outcomes.
  21. Kangaroo Mother Care (KMC) promotes skin-to-skin contact for preterm infants.
  22. Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram (JSSK) provides free healthcare for pregnant women and children.
  23. Ayushman Bharat provides comprehensive primary healthcare.
  24. National Leprosy Eradication Program covers childhood leprosy management.
  25. Mother and Child Protection Card tracks child development and immunization.
  26. Pediatric Intensive Care Units (PICUs) are specialized for critically ill children.
  27. Special Newborn Care Units (SNCUs) manage sick neonates.
  28. Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI) promotes breastfeeding.
  29. Adoption regulations ensure child welfare in adoption processes.
  30. Child labor prohibition laws protect children from exploitation.
  31. Juvenile Justice Act protects children in conflict with the law.
  32. Pediatric Nutrition Rehabilitation Centers manage severe malnutrition.
  33. National Iodine Deficiency Disorders Control Program prevents iodine deficiency.
  34. Free Drug Program provides essential medicines to children.
  35. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) is a key indicator of child health.
  36. Under-five mortality rate tracks deaths in children under 5 years.
  37. Growth monitoring is essential in child welfare services.
  38. Exclusive breastfeeding reduces infant mortality.
  39. ORS and Zinc Supplementation Program reduces diarrhea-related deaths.
  40. Safe Injection Practices are promoted under UIP.
  41. Adolescent Reproductive and Sexual Health (ARSH) focuses on teen health.
  42. Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) supports holistic development.
  43. Maternal and Child Health (MCH) services are integrated into primary healthcare.
  44. Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV) prevents pneumonia in children.
  45. GAVI Alliance supports immunization programs in low-income countries.
  46. Measles-Rubella (MR) Campaign aims for measles elimination.
  47. Reproductive, Maternal, Newborn, Child, and Adolescent Health (RMNCH+A) strategy covers the full life cycle.
  48. Breastfeeding Promotion Network of India (BPNI) promotes optimal infant feeding.
  49. Swasth Bachpan Abhiyan focuses on child health awareness.
  50. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aim to reduce child mortality globally.
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