30/07/2018-B.SC-NURSING REAERCH-PAPER DONE-UPLOAD NO.2

30/07/2018-B.SC-NURSING REAERCH-PAPER DONE-UPLOAD NO.2

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Section 1 (50 mark)

Q.1 Answer the following (any four) (2×4=8)

a) Types of validity

Validity refers to the degree to which a research tool or instrument measures what it is intended to measure. The main types of validity are :

1. Content Validity

It assesses whether the instrument fully covers the concept being measured.
It is usually evaluated by experts in the field.

2. Construct Validity

It checks how well the tool relates to theoretical concepts or constructs.
It ensures the test measures the intended abstract concept, like anxiety, stress, etc.

3. Criterion Validity

It compares the tool with an already established standard or criterion.

It has two subtypes :

Concurrent validity (measured at the same time)
Predictive validity (ability to predict future outcomes)

b) Research variables

Research variables are defined as measurable characteristics, properties, or attributes that can change or vary across individuals, settings, or time and are observed, measured, or manipulated in a research study to examine relationships, effects, or outcomes. Variables are essential components of a research study and include independent variables (cause), dependent variables (effect), and other types like extraneous or confounding variables.

c) What is descriptive research

Descriptive research is a type of non-experimental research that is conducted to systematically describe and explain the characteristics, behaviors, conditions, or relationships of a specific population or phenomenon without manipulating variables. It aims to answer questions like “what,” “how,” and “when” rather than “why.” It is commonly used in surveys, case studies, and observational studies in nursing.

d) Sampling error

Sampling error is defined as the difference between the results obtained from a sample and the actual values or characteristics of the entire population due to the natural chance variation in selecting a sample. It occurs because only a part of the population is studied, not the whole. Sampling error can be minimized by using larger and random samples.

e) Define quasi experimental study

A quasi-experimental study is a type of research that evaluates the effect of an intervention or treatment without using random assignment of participants to groups. Unlike true experiments, quasi-experiments rely on existing groups, making them useful when randomization is not practical or ethical.

Q.2

a) Explain the purpose of research (5+5=10 mark)

Research is a systematic and organized process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information to answer questions or solve problems. Its primary purposes include :

1. To Explore New Areas

Investigate unknown or less-studied topics to fill gaps in knowledge.
Identify new problems, questions, or hypotheses for further study.
Lay the groundwork for future research by gathering preliminary data.

2. To Describe Characteristics

Provide detailed, accurate accounts of behaviors, events, or conditions.
Help create profiles or classifications of populations or phenomena.
Document trends, frequencies, and distributions in specific contexts.

3. To Explain Relationships

Analyze how variables influence each other.
Determine cause-and-effect connections where possible.
Understand underlying mechanisms or processes behind observed phenomena.

4. To Predict Future Trends

Use past and current data to forecast future outcomes.
Assist in planning and preparing for expected developments.
Help reduce risks by anticipating challenges or opportunities.

5. To Solve Practical Problems

Develop practical solutions to issues faced by individuals, organizations, or communities.
Improve policies, programs, or products through evidence-based recommendations.
Guide interventions that address social, economic, or health-related challenges.

6. To Test and Validate Theories

Confirm whether existing scientific theories hold true under different conditions.
Challenge or refine theories to improve their accuracy and applicability.
Contribute to theory-building by providing empirical support.

7. To Inform Policy and Decision Making

Provide policymakers with reliable data to create effective laws or regulations.
Help organizations optimize resource allocation and strategy development.
Support evidence-based decisions in various sectors like healthcare, education, and business.

8. To Improve Practices and Techniques

Identify weaknesses or inefficiencies in current methods.
Develop innovative tools, technologies, or procedures.
Enhance quality, safety, and effectiveness of services or products.

9. To Support Academic and Scientific Knowledge

Expand the collective understanding of disciplines.
Foster intellectual growth and encourage scholarly debate.
Provide foundations for future discoveries and innovations.

10. To Increase Awareness

Educate the public or specific groups about important issues.
Promote social change by highlighting critical problems.
Encourage advocacy and informed participation in societal matters.

11. To Evaluate Programs and Interventions

Measure the success or failure of implemented actions.
Identify areas needing improvement or adjustment.
Provide accountability for funders, stakeholders, or communities.

12. To Encourage Critical Thinking

Promote questioning of assumptions and accepted ideas.
Foster skills in analysis, synthesis, and logical reasoning.
Help develop independent and reflective thinkers.

13. To Facilitate Communication

Translate complex information into understandable formats.
Bridge gaps between researchers, practitioners, and the public.
Enhance knowledge sharing and collaboration.

14. To Support Economic and Social Development

Drive innovation that boosts productivity and economic growth.
Address social inequalities by informing targeted policies.
Improve quality of life through advancements in healthcare, education, and infrastructure.

15. To Enhance Professional Practice

Provide evidence for best practices in various professions.
Promote continuous learning and professional development.
Ensure ethical and effective service delivery based on research findings.

b) Classify research design and explain any one research design with example

A research design is a structured plan or blueprint for conducting a research study.
It is the overall strategy that specifies the methods for collecting, measuring, and analyzing data.
It is used to ensure that the study answers the research questions accurately, efficiently, and ethically.

Classification of Research Designs

Research designs are broadly classified into the following categories:

✅ A. Based on Purpose or Objective of Study

1. Basic Research (Fundamental or Pure Research)

It is research conducted to develop new knowledge, theories, or principles without necessarily solving an immediate practical problem.
It is usually done in laboratories or academic settings.
It is more theoretical and focuses on understanding phenomena.
Example : A study to understand how immune cells respond to infection at a molecular level.

2. Applied Research

It is done with the goal of solving a specific, practical problem using established scientific knowledge.
It is used in real-life settings such as hospitals, communities, or clinics.
It is highly relevant in nursing care and evidence-based practice.
Example : A study to evaluate the effectiveness of a new method of wound dressing to reduce healing time.

3. Action Research

It is a type of applied research conducted by practitioners (e.g., nurses, educators) to bring about immediate change or improvement in their own practice.
It is cyclical in nature (planning → action → evaluation → re-planning).
It is collaborative and often involves staff or community members.
Example : A nurse manager conducting action research to reduce patient falls in her ward.

✅ B. Based on Nature of Data or Approach

1. Quantitative Research

It is research that collects and analyzes numerical data to test hypotheses and measure variables objectively.
It is used when the researcher wants to quantify relationships between variables.
It is structured, uses large samples, and relies on statistical methods.
Example : Measuring the effect of hand hygiene education on the infection rate among ICU patients.

2. Qualitative Research

It is research focused on understanding human experiences, perceptions, and behaviors.
It is non-numerical and uses tools like interviews, observations, and focus groups.
It is flexible and often used in exploratory studies.
Example : Exploring the emotional experiences of terminally ill patients receiving palliative care.

3. Mixed Method Research

It is a combination of both quantitative and qualitative approaches in a single study.
It is useful when a researcher wants to understand both numerical trends and participant perspectives.
Example : Studying stress levels (quantitative) and coping strategies (qualitative) among nursing students during exams.

✅ C. Based on Time Frame of Study

1. Cross-Sectional Research

It is conducted at one point in time to assess the current status of a variable or relationship.
It is quick, economical, and good for surveys and large populations.
Example : A study to determine the prevalence of anemia among adolescent girls in a district.

2. Longitudinal Research

It is conducted over an extended period of time to observe changes and developments in the same subjects.
It is useful to study growth, trends, or long-term effects.
Example : A study tracking infant weight gain for the first year of life after birth.

✅ D. Based on Control Over Variables

1. Experimental Research

It is a type of research in which the researcher manipulates the independent variable to observe its effect on the dependent variable, while using randomization and a control group.

It is used to determine cause-and-effect relationships.

Example : Evaluating the effect of meditation on stress reduction among nursing staff in a high-stress unit.

2. Quasi-Experimental Research

It is similar to experimental research, but lacks either randomization or a true control group.
It is more practical for real-life settings but less rigorous.
Example : Comparing post-operative infection rates before and after implementing a new sterile technique without random assignment.

3. Non-Experimental Research

It is observational, where the researcher does not manipulate variables, but only studies relationships or patterns.
It is common in surveys, case studies, and correlational studies.
Example : Studying the relationship between sleep duration and academic performance in nursing students.

✅ E. Based on Research Field or Setting

1. Clinical Research

It is conducted to study medical or nursing interventions in patient care.
Example : Studying the efficacy of wound care protocols.

2. Educational Research

It is focused on teaching-learning methods, curriculum development, and educational assessments.
Example : Comparing simulation-based learning vs lecture methods in nursing education.

3. Social Research

It is aimed at exploring societal and behavioral issues like stigma, gender roles, and cultural beliefs.
Example : Studying attitudes toward mental illness in rural populations.

Experimental Research

Definition

It is a scientific research method in which the researcher manipulates one variable (called independent variable) to observe its effect on another variable (called dependent variable) under controlled conditions.
It is used to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables in a systematic and objective manner.

Main Characteristics of Experimental Research

It is based on manipulation of variables by the researcher to test a hypothesis.
It is conducted under controlled conditions, often in laboratories or controlled settings.
It includes random assignment of subjects to groups to reduce bias.
It uses control groups and experimental groups for comparison.
It applies pre-tests and post-tests to measure changes in the dependent variable.
It ensures replication is possible, increasing the reliability of results.
It uses objective measurements and statistical analysis to evaluate the outcomes.

Components of Experimental Research

Independent Variable – It is the variable that is manipulated.

Dependent Variable – It is the outcome that is measured.

Control Group – It is the group that does not receive the intervention.

Experimental Group – It is the group that receives the intervention.

Randomization – It is the process of assigning subjects randomly to groups.

Hypothesis – It is a statement that predicts the relationship between variables.

Types of Experimental Research

1. True Experimental Design

It includes random assignment of subjects to groups (control and experimental).
It involves manipulation of the independent variable to observe effect.
It has a control group to compare results.
It offers high internal validity due to control over confounding variables.
It uses pre-test and post-test to measure change.
It allows replication and generalization of results.
Examples : Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT), Solomon Four Group Design

2. Quasi-Experimental Design

It includes manipulation of independent variable without random assignment.
It may or may not include a control group.
It is useful in natural or real-life settings like hospitals or schools.
It is more practical and ethical for large populations.
It has moderate internal validity.
It is often used in community health and nursing education research.
Examples : Time-Series Design, Non-equivalent Control Group Design

3. Pre-Experimental Design

It lacks randomization and control group.
It studies only one group, before and after an intervention.
It is used in pilot studies or feasibility testing.
It is simple, low-cost, and easy to conduct.
It has low internal validity and more chance of bias.
It cannot establish strong cause-effect relationships.
Examples : One Group Pre-test Post-test Design, One-Shot Case Study

Steps in Conducting Experimental Research

Identify the research problem and hypothesis to be tested.
Define the variables – independent and dependent.
Select subjects and assign them to groups.
Apply the intervention to the experimental group.
Measure the outcomes using post-test results.
Analyze the data using statistical methods.
Interpret and report findings in relation to the hypothesis.

Advantages of Experimental Research

It provides strongest evidence for cause-effect relationship.
It ensures high internal validity due to control over variables.
It allows replication, increasing reliability.
It can be used to test new drugs, treatments, or interventions.

Limitations of Experimental Research

It is often time-consuming and expensive.
It may have ethical issues with manipulation of human behavior.
It has limited generalizability if done in artificial settings.
It can be affected by researcher bias or subject non-compliance.

Example of Experimental Research in Nursing
A study to evaluate the effect of hand hygiene education (independent variable) on the incidence of hospital-acquired infections (dependent variable) among ICU nurses using randomized control trial.

Application of Experimental Research in Nursing

It is used to test new nursing interventions (e.g., pain management, wound care).
It helps in promoting evidence-based practice through scientific findings.
It improves patient outcomes like reduced infection and faster recovery.
It is applied to validate nursing theories and models in real practice.
It evaluates nursing education programs through pre- and post-tests.
It is useful in community/public health nursing to assess health programs.
It studies safe and effective drug administration in patient care.
It helps in nursing policy-making based on proven interventions.
It supports quality assurance and nursing audits.
It evaluates the impact of technology like EHRs in nursing care

Q.2 Define resarch and discuss the steps of nursing research process in detail

Research

It is a systematic, scientific, and logical process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data, in order to answer a specific question or solve a problem. It is conducted to generate new knowledge, verify existing knowledge, or explore relationships between variables, often using objective and well-structured methods.

Steps of nursing research process

1️⃣ Identification of Research Problem

It is the first step where the researcher selects a topic or issue that needs scientific investigation.
In which the topic should be relevant, researchable, feasible, and ethical.
It may come from clinical experience, literature, or existing gaps in knowledge.
It should be clearly stated in the form of a problem statement.
Nursing Relevance : Helps identify critical patient care issues such as fall prevention, medication errors, or staff burnout.

2️⃣ Review of Literature

It is the process of reviewing previous research studies, theories, and data related to the selected topic.
In which it provides background knowledge, identifies gaps, and refines the research question.
It includes both primary sources (original research) and secondary sources (reviews, textbooks).
It prevents duplication and supports justification of the study.
Nursing Relevance : Helps nurses build on existing clinical evidence for better patient care.

3️⃣ Formulation of Objectives and Hypotheses

It is the step where the researcher defines what the study aims to achieve.
In which objectives are written clearly and should be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound).
Hypotheses are formulated in quantitative research to test relationships or differences.
They may be null (no difference) or alternative (there is a difference).
Nursing Relevance : Guides the nurse to stay focused and structure the research towards improving care delivery.

4️⃣ Selection of Research Design

It is the overall plan that determines how data will be collected, analyzed, and interpreted.
In which the researcher selects from types like descriptive, experimental, correlational, or qualitative depending on the problem.
It ensures internal and external validity of the study.
The design should match the research question and resources.
Nursing Relevance : Helps ensure the study is scientifically accurate and applicable to nursing practice.

5️⃣ Sampling and Sampling Techniques

It is the method used to select a portion of the population for participation.
In which probability (random) or non-probability (convenient, purposive) methods are used.
The sample should be representative and adequate in size for generalization.
Factors like inclusion and exclusion criteria must be clearly defined.
Nursing Relevance : Allows efficient data collection from patients or healthcare workers without needing the entire population.

6️⃣ Development of Research Tool

It is the step of preparing valid and reliable instruments for data collection.
In which tools may include questionnaires, rating scales, observation checklists, or interview guides.
Tools must be pilot-tested to ensure clarity and accuracy.
The language should be simple, and the tool should be culturally appropriate.
Nursing Relevance : Ensures data is captured effectively about patient symptoms, satisfaction, or nursing competencies.

7️⃣ Data Collection

It is the process of gathering information from the selected sample using the research tool.
In which ethical practices like informed consent, confidentiality, and voluntary participation are followed.
Data may be collected through observation, interviews, clinical tests, or document review.
A proper schedule, training of data collectors, and record-keeping are important.
Nursing Relevance : Helps nurses gather real patient data on clinical outcomes or care processes.

8️⃣ Data Analysis and Interpretation

It is the process of converting raw data into meaningful information.
In which statistical software and techniques (mean, chi-square, t-test, etc.) are used in quantitative research.
In qualitative studies, thematic analysis is used to identify patterns.
The analysis must align with the study objectives and hypothesis.
Nursing Relevance: Helps determine the effectiveness of nursing interventions and make clinical decisions based on facts.

9️⃣ Presentation and Communication of Results

It is the step where findings are documented and shared with others.
In which results are presented through research reports, dissertations, articles, or presentations.
It includes summary of findings, conclusions, recommendations, and implications.

Charts, tables, and graphs are often used to present data clearly.
Nursing Relevance: Enables the nursing community to use new knowledge for improving care practices and standards.

🔟 Application of Research Findings (Utilization)

It is the final step where findings are applied to practice, policy, or education.
In which nurses and healthcare leaders use evidence to develop care protocols, improve training, or influence policy.
It bridges the gap between research and practice by implementing tested strategies.
Ongoing evaluation helps assess the effectiveness of changes made.
Nursing Relevance : Enhances patient safety, care quality, and overall efficiency in nursing services.

Q.3 Explain the purpose, types & sources of review of literature (7 mark)

A. Purpose of Review of Literature

The review of literature serves several important functions in the research process. It helps the researcher to develop a theoretical foundation, identify research gaps, and plan a well-structured study.

The major purposes are

It provides background knowledge related to the research problem and concepts.
It helps identify research gaps in existing studies to justify the need for new research.
It supports the development of research questions, objectives, and hypotheses.

It guides the selection of appropriate research methodology, tools, and data collection techniques.
It prevents duplication of previous studies, saving time and resources.
It strengthens the rationale of the study and improves the credibility of research findings.

It helps in interpreting study findings in comparison to earlier evidence.
It contributes to the development of theoretical and conceptual frameworks.

B. Types of Review of Literature

Literature reviews can be categorized based on structure, purpose, and methodology:

1. Narrative Review (Traditional Review)

It is a qualitative summary of existing literature on a broad topic.
It does not follow a systematic approach or strict inclusion criteria.
It is used in the introductory phase of research.
Presents a general overview of current knowledge and viewpoints.
Example : A narrative review on the importance of hand hygiene in infection control.

2. Systematic Review

It follows a planned and structured process to locate, appraise, and synthesize all research evidence.
It uses clear inclusion and exclusion criteria, database searches, and data extraction.
Aims to reduce bias and increase reliability.
Example : A systematic review on effectiveness of CPR training programs for nurses.

3. Meta-Analysis

A statistical method of combining data from multiple studies.
It is a subset of systematic review with numerical data synthesis.
Focuses on effect size and statistical significance across studies.
Example : Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on vaccine effectiveness.

4. Integrative Review

It Includes both experimental and non-experimental research to understand a healthcare problem.
In which Synthesizes diverse methodologies and draws new interpretations or theories.
It provides comprehensive understanding and may generate new frameworks.
Example : Integrative review on mental health outcomes in adolescent mothers.

5. Scoping Review

Explores a broad topic area to map key concepts, research gaps, and types of evidence available.
It does not assess the quality or risk of bias.
It is Used when the topic is complex or has not been reviewed before.
Example : Scoping review on technology use in nursing education.

6. Critical Review

It critically evaluates the quality and validity of each study.
Goes beyond summarizing – questions assumptions, methods, and conclusions.
Often used in thesis or dissertation writing.
Example : Critical review of pain management interventions in palliative care.

7. State-of-the-Art Review

It is Focuses on most recent literature and current trends.
Identifies advancements, innovation, and new models.
It Often published in scientific magazines and journals.
Example : State-of-the-art review on use of Artificial Intelligence in nursing care.

C. Sources of Review of Literature

1. Primary Sources

These are firsthand, original reports of facts or findings.
They are created by researchers who conducted the study.
Considered the most reliable and authentic for evidence-based practice.
It provides detailed methodology, data, analysis, and conclusions
It helps in understanding the research design and result interpretation

Examples :

Research journal articles
Theses and dissertations
Conference proceedings (presenting original findings)
Research reports by institutions
Clinical trials

2. Secondary Sources

These sources analyze, interpret, or summarize information from primary sources.
They are not original research but rather a review or evaluation of existing studies.
It is useful for building background knowledge.
It Offers a broad overview of a topic
It helps in identifies trends, gaps, and theoretical perspectives

Examples :

Review articles
Systematic reviews or meta-analysis
Nursing textbooks
Encyclopedias
Literature reviews in scholarly journals
Theoretical framework chapters

3. Tertiary Sources

These are tools or reference materials that help in locating both primary and secondary sources.
They do not contain original content but provide direction for finding it.
Provides access to wide-ranging literature
It helps in conducting effective literature search

Examples :

Bibliographies
Indexing and abstracting services
Databases and directories
Online search engines
Library catalogs

Q.4 Wrte short notes (5×5=25)

a) Sampling

INTRODUCTION

It is often not possible to study an entire population in research due to time, money, and effort limitations.
Therefore, sampling is the process used to select a portion (sample) from the total population for the purpose of conducting research.
It is essential to ensure the sample is representative, unbiased, and appropriate to produce generalizable results.
It is commonly used in nursing research to study health outcomes, patient behaviors, nursing practices, and healthcare delivery systems.

DEFINITION OF SAMPLING

It is defined as the process of selecting a subset of individuals from a defined population to represent the entire group.
In simple terms, sampling helps in drawing conclusions about the population without studying every individual.
The chosen subset is called a “sample”, and the total group is called the “population.”

TYPES OF SAMPLING

SAMPLING TYPES ARE MAINLY DIVIDED INTO TWO MAJOR CATEGORIES :

I. Probability Sampling (also called random sampling)

II. Non-Probability Sampling (also called non-random sampling)

🟦 I. PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS

In probability sampling, each unit in the population has a known and equal chance of being selected, which helps to reduce bias and allows the findings to be generalized to the population.

✅ 1. Simple Random Sampling

It is the most basic form of probability sampling in which every individual in the population has an equal and independent chance of being selected, just like picking names from a hat or using a lottery method.
It is commonly done using random number tables, computer-generated random numbers, or lottery techniques, ensuring complete objectivity and fairness in the selection process.
It is useful when the population is homogeneous and the sampling frame is readily available.
Example : Selecting 100 nurses randomly from a hospital staff list of 500 nurses.

✅ 2. Stratified Random Sampling

It is a probability sampling technique where the entire population is divided into subgroups (called strata) based on shared characteristics such as age, gender, year of study, or department.
It is then followed by random sampling from each stratum, ensuring that each subgroup is properly represented in the final sample.
It is especially useful when the population is heterogeneous and the researcher wants to maintain balance in the sample.
Example : Selecting 25 students from each year (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th B.Sc. Nursing) to study stress levels.

✅ 3. Systematic Random Sampling

It is a method in which the researcher first selects a random starting point, and then selects every kth subject from the list or population.
It is a simple and efficient method when the population is evenly distributed, but it may introduce bias if there is a hidden pattern in the list.
Example : Choosing every 10th file in the hospital OPD register for review.

✅ 4. Cluster Sampling

It is a technique where the population is divided into naturally occurring groups or clusters such as wards, schools, villages, or hospitals.
It is then followed by random selection of entire clusters, and all individuals within those selected clusters are included in the sample.
It is especially useful when the population is large and scattered geographically.
Example : Selecting 3 rural health centers and surveying all patients in those centers.

🟩 II. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS

In non-probability sampling, the chances of each member being selected are not known, and selection is based on the researcher’s judgment or convenience, which may result in sampling bias.

✅ 1. Convenience Sampling

It is the simplest and most commonly used non-probability method where subjects are selected because they are easily accessible, available, and willing to participate.
It is inexpensive and quick but may not represent the whole population, leading to limited generalizability.
Example : Interviewing patients who are available during the morning shift in OPD.

✅ 2. Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling

It is a type of non-random sampling where the researcher intentionally selects specific individuals who are thought to be most appropriate or relevant for the research objective.
It is often used in qualitative research where the goal is to gain in-depth understanding rather than generalization.
Example : Choosing only ICU nurses to study stress in critical care settings.

✅ 3. Quota Sampling

It is similar to stratified sampling in that the population is divided into categories (such as gender, age, occupation), but selection from each category is done non-randomly until a specific quota is met.
It is fast and easy to execute but may involve researcher bias in participant selection.
Example : Selecting 30 female and 20 male patients for a health behavior study.

✅ 4. Snowball Sampling

It is used when studying rare, hidden, or difficult-to-reach populations, where existing participants recruit or refer other participants who meet the inclusion criteria.
It is particularly useful in sensitive areas of research like drug abuse, HIV, or transgender health issues.
Example : A study on intravenous drug users where one participant refers others from the same community.

IMPORTANCE OF SAMPLING IN NURSING RESEARCH

It is important because it allows researchers to study a representative portion of the population, especially when the total population is too large or inaccessible.
It is essential in nursing research to obtain reliable and valid data without needing to study every single patient, which saves both time and resources.
It is helps researchers to make inferences or generalizations about the larger population based on the findings from the sample.
It is widely used in epidemiological studies, clinical trials, and community surveys, where direct contact with every member of the population is not possible.
It is useful in improving evidence-based nursing practice, as well-constructed sampling provides data that reflect real-world nursing care and patient outcomes.
It is enables the comparison of different population groups, such as comparing the effect of a nursing intervention between ICU patients and general ward patients.
It is also necessary for developing nursing policies and health care protocols, based on sample research findings rather than anecdotal experiences.

ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING

It is more economical than conducting a census, as it requires fewer resources such as time, money, equipment, and personnel to study a small portion of the population.
It is a more practical and feasible approach, especially in large-scale research projects where studying the entire population would be unrealistic or impossible.
It is often results in faster data collection and analysis, allowing researchers to draw timely conclusions and apply them in practice or policy.
It is allows researchers to focus more deeply on each participant and gather detailed, high-quality information.
It is can be repeated easily for follow-up or longitudinal studies without exhausting the population, making it sustainable for ongoing research.
It is reduces workload and fatigue for the research team, making them more effective and less prone to errors in data handling.
It is particularly beneficial in pilot studies, where the goal is to test the feasibility of a research tool or method before using it on a larger scale.
It is increases accuracy and consistency, especially when probability sampling techniques are used, which reduce selection bias.

LIMITATIONS / DISADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING

It is may lead to sampling bias, particularly in non-probability methods where subjects are selected based on convenience or judgment rather than randomness.
It is can produce inaccurate or misleading results if the sample is not truly representative of the population, especially in diverse or complex populations.
It is cannot fully capture the variability or heterogeneity of the entire population, especially if the sample size is too small or poorly selected.
It is may result in non-response bias, where selected participants choose not to respond or participate, affecting the reliability of the findings.
It is limits the generalizability of findings, especially when non-random sampling is used or when the population characteristics are not well understood.
It is requires a proper sampling frame, and errors in defining the population or listing its members can distort the outcome of the research.
It is can introduce human error, especially in judgmental sampling where personal bias or assumptions affect who is included in the study.
It is sometimes questioned for ethical reasons, particularly when certain individuals are excluded from the research, potentially affecting justice or fairness.

b) Step of research process

Research is a systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem or question. The research process involves the following key steps :

1. Identify the Research Problem

This is the first and most important step.
It involves selecting and clearly defining the issue, question, or phenomenon you want to study.
A well-defined problem guides the entire research process and helps focus the study.
Example : Investigating the impact of social media on students’ academic performance.

2. Review of Literature

Conduct a thorough review of existing studies, theories, and data related to the research problem.
Helps in understanding what has already been done, identifying gaps, and refining the research question or hypothesis.
Sources include books, journals, articles, and online databases.

3. Formulate Hypothesis or Research Questions

Based on the literature review, develop a hypothesis (a testable prediction) or specific research questions.
A hypothesis predicts the relationship between variables, while research questions guide exploratory studies.

Example Hypothesis : “Use of social media negatively affects students’ academic scores.”

4. Research Design

Plan the overall strategy and methods for the study.
Decide on the type of research (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods), sampling method, data collection tools, and procedures.
Ensures the research is structured and systematic.

Example : Choosing a survey method and stratified random sampling to collect data.

5. Data Collection

Collect data from primary or secondary sources as per the research design.
Use methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments.
Accuracy and consistency in data collection are critical for validity.
Example : Administering questionnaires to students about their social media habits and academic performance.

6. Data Analysis

Organize, tabulate, and analyze the collected data using statistical tools (for quantitative data) or content/thematic analysis (for qualitative data).
Data analysis helps in identifying patterns, relationships, and testing hypotheses.
Example : Using software like SPSS to analyze survey responses.

7. Interpretation of Results

Interpret the meaning of the analyzed data in the context of the research problem.
Determine whether the hypothesis is supported or rejected.
Discuss implications, significance, and limitations of the findings.
Example : Concluding whether social media use correlates with lower academic performance.

8. Report Writing and Presentation

Prepare a detailed research report or paper that includes introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, conclusions, and recommendations.
Presentation of findings may be oral or written and is important for sharing knowledge.
Clear and logical presentation helps readers understand the research.

9. Making Recommendations (if applicable)

Based on findings, suggest practical actions, policies, or further areas of research.
Recommendations aim to solve the research problem or improve future studies.
Example : Recommending limits on social media use during study hours.

c) Method of data collection

1️⃣ Observation Method

It is a method in which the researcher directly observes people, events, or phenomena in their natural setting without interfering.
In which structured observation uses checklists, while unstructured observation is free and open-ended.

It can be participant (researcher joins the activity) or non-participant (researcher observes without involvement).
It is useful for gathering non-verbal data and real-time behaviors.
Nursing Relevance : Used to observe nurse-patient interaction, patient hygiene practices, or staff compliance with safety protocols.

2️⃣ Interview Method

It is a method where data is collected through verbal communication between the interviewer and respondent.
In which structured interviews follow a fixed set of questions, while unstructured ones allow open conversation.
It helps in understanding thoughts, emotions, motivations, and complex behaviors.
It can be conducted face-to-face, via phone, or video calls.
Nursing Relevance : Useful in psychiatric nursing to explore patient history or in research on nurse burnout.

3️⃣ Questionnaire Method

It is a written set of questions that participants answer either in paper form or electronically.
In which responses may be open-ended (descriptive) or close-ended (multiple choice, yes/no).
It is ideal for large sample sizes and self-reporting data collection.

It offers anonymity, which may increase honest responses.
Nursing Relevance : Used to assess knowledge levels of staff nurses or public awareness of health programs.

4️⃣ Checklist Method

It is a simple list of items, tasks, or behaviors used to verify the presence or absence of specific elements.
In which the observer marks yes/no or tick boxes as they observe.
It ensures consistency and objectivity in observation.

It is used in routine clinical audits, evaluations, or nursing procedures.
Nursing Relevance : Used to assess procedure steps like catheter care, medication administration, or emergency trolley readiness.

5️⃣ Rating Scale Method

It is a tool where respondents indicate their level of agreement or feeling on a given scale.
In which Likert scales (1–5), visual analog scales, and numerical rating scales are commonly used.
It quantifies subjective experiences such as pain, satisfaction, or anxiety.
It allows researchers to measure intensity or frequency of behaviors or attitudes.
Nursing Relevance : Used in pain assessment, patient satisfaction surveys, or evaluating stress among nurses.

6️⃣ Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

It is a qualitative method where a small group discusses a specific topic, guided by a moderator.
In which interaction among participants generates varied and in-depth insights.
It is semi-structured and flexible, often recorded and transcribed for analysis.

It helps explore beliefs, perceptions, and social dynamics.
Nursing Relevance : Used in community health nursing to explore women’s views on breastfeeding or adolescent health practices.

7️⃣ Documentary or Record Analysis

It is a method in which existing records or documents are reviewed for relevant information.
In which sources include hospital records, case files, reports, registers, and electronic health records.
It is cost-effective, non-invasive, and suitable for retrospective studies.
It helps identify trends, outcomes, or compliance with protocols.
Nursing Relevance : Used for infection rate analysis, treatment outcomes, or chart audits.

8️⃣ Case Study Method

It is an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, event, or setting.
In which multiple sources of data are used—interviews, observations, documents.
It provides rich, contextual understanding of complex phenomena.
It is time-consuming but very detailed and personalized.
Nursing Relevance : Used to study rare clinical cases or long-term patient outcomes.

9️⃣ Telephonic or Online Survey

It is a method of collecting data using phone calls, emails, mobile apps, or online platforms.
In which it allows fast, remote data collection with minimal cost.
It is useful during emergencies like pandemics or in geographically dispersed populations.
It can include open or close-ended questions, links, and consent forms.
Nursing Relevance : Used in telehealth follow-up, online nurse feedback forms, or pandemic-related studies.

🔟 Physiological/Biological Measurements

It is the collection of data using standardized medical instruments to measure body functions.
In which BP machines, glucometers, ECGs, spirometers, and thermometers are used.
It provides objective, accurate, and reproducible data.
It is often combined with subjective methods like questionnaires for comprehensive results.
Nursing Relevance : Used in clinical trials, nursing assessments, or ICU monitoring.

d) Research statement

INTRODUCTION

It is the first and most essential step in the research process to define what exactly the study is about, and this is done by writing a Research Statement, also called a Problem Statement.
It is developed based on the researcher’s observations, experience, clinical problems, community needs, or literature review.
It is serves as a foundation for building the entire research, guiding the formulation of objectives, hypotheses, and design.
It is particularly useful in nursing research, where the goal is to improve patient care, nursing practice, education, and health policies.

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH STATEMENT

A Research Statement is a formal and concise description of the specific problem or issue that a research project intends to investigate.
It is written in the early phase of the research proposal and provides the purpose, context, and significance of the study.
It is not a hypothesis or question, but a narrative explanation of what is being studied and why.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH STATEMENT

Clarity : It is written in clear, simple, and precise language, avoiding ambiguity.

Specificity : It focuses on one main problem or issue and avoids covering too many ideas at once.

Researchable : It refers to a problem that can be studied using scientific methods, tools, and ethical practices.

Relevance : It addresses a real and significant problem that has value for nursing education, practice, administration, or policy.

Evidence-Based : It is supported by existing data, reports, statistics, or past studies that highlight its importance.

Feasibility : It is manageable within available time, budget, and resource constraints.

Objectivity : It does not include any personal opinions or assumptions about the outcome — it presents only the problem neutrally.

ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH STATEMENT

A strong research statement includes :

Background or Context: What is already known about the topic?

Problem Identification: What issue or gap are you trying to address?

Target Population: Who is affected by this problem?

Location/Setting: Where is the problem occurring?

Rationale: Why is it important to study this now?

FORMAT FOR WRITING A RESEARCH STATEMENT

Start with the broad problem area (e.g., high maternal mortality).
Narrow down to the specific issue (e.g., poor knowledge of antenatal care among primigravida women).
Justify the importance using evidence, statistics, or literature gaps.
End with a statement of intent — what your research will study.

SAMPLE RESEARCH STATEMENTS FOR NURSING STUDENTS

✅ Example 1

“Anemia remains a major health issue among adolescent girls in rural areas despite the availability of iron supplementation programs. Poor awareness regarding iron-rich foods, menstrual loss, and lack of access to health education contribute to this issue. Therefore, this study aims to assess the effectiveness of a structured teaching program on knowledge regarding iron-deficiency anemia among adolescent girls in selected schools of Gujarat.”

✅ Example 2

“Post-operative pain is one of the most distressing symptoms reported by surgical patients. Non-pharmacological interventions such as back massage have been shown to reduce pain perception. This study is conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of back massage therapy on post-operative pain among abdominal surgery patients in a tertiary care hospital.”

✅ Example 3

“Stress and sleep disturbances are commonly reported among nursing students during examinations. However, limited research has explored the association between stress levels and sleep quality in this population. This study investigates the relationship between academic stress and sleep quality among final-year B.Sc. Nursing students in selected colleges.”

IMPORTANCE OF A RESEARCH STATEMENT IN NURSING RESEARCH

It is essential for developing objectives, research questions, and hypotheses.
It is helps define variables, population, setting, and tools.
It is ensures the study remains focused, relevant, and ethically sound.
It is assists in writing effective proposals, obtaining funding, and ethical approvals.
It is strengthens the logical flow of the entire research report.
It is the base upon which the success or failure of the research depends.
It is crucial in nursing to address clinical problems, patient needs, and care quality improvements.

COMMON MISTAKES TO AVOID

Making the statement too vague or general (e.g., “This study is about health.”)
Assuming results in advance — e.g., “This study proves that…”
Using complex, unclear, or unstructured language.
Not stating the target population, setting, or scope.
Including objectives or hypothesis instead of just describing the problem.

e) Need for research in nursing

It is important to understand that nursing is a dynamic and evolving profession that requires continuous development of knowledge, skills, and clinical practices to provide the best care.
It is through nursing research that evidence is generated to support or improve current practices, policies, education, and patient outcomes.
It is considered a scientific process that helps nurses answer clinical questions, solve problems, and make informed decisions.
It is the backbone of evidence-based nursing practice (EBNP), ensuring care is not based on tradition alone but on scientific evidence.

NEED FOR RESEARCH IN NURSING

✅ 1. To Improve the Quality of Patient Care

It is needed to develop and validate care protocols, clinical guidelines, and treatment pathways that improve patient safety and comfort.
It is essential for measuring clinical outcomes such as wound healing rates, infection rates, or pain levels after nursing interventions.
It is helps identify the most effective communication techniques, patient teaching strategies, and therapeutic approaches.
It is also supports individualized and holistic care by studying cultural, psychological, and physical needs of diverse patient groups.

✅ 2. To Promote Evidence-Based Practice (EBP)

It is through research that nurses update their practice based on the latest scientific evidence rather than relying on outdated traditions or habits.
It is bridges the gap between theory and clinical practice, ensuring that care is relevant and effective.
It is provides a strong foundation for clinical decision-making, especially in complex cases requiring critical thinking.
It is improves patient satisfaction, cost-effectiveness, and standardization of nursing care across institutions.

✅ 3. To Identify and Solve Real Clinical Problems

It is essential to investigate common problems like medication errors, falls, infections, patient dissatisfaction, and poor communication.
It is helps create new care models or systems that reduce workload, prevent burnout, and improve safety.
It is supports continuous quality improvement (CQI) by identifying root causes and testing alternative solutions.
It is allows nurses to generate data on patient responses, barriers to care, and recovery patterns.

✅ 4. To Advance the Nursing Profession

It is necessary for gaining scientific recognition and academic credibility as an autonomous profession.
It is enables nurses to develop their own theories, models, and ethical frameworks that shape nursing identity.
It is used to demonstrate the unique contribution of nurses in patient care and health promotion.
It is strengthens professional pride, status, and global image of nursing as a scientific discipline.

✅ 5. To Enhance Nursing Education and Curriculum

It is important to assess teaching methodologies, student performance, and learning outcomes for effective curriculum design.
It is supports the use of technology, simulation, and active learning in nursing classrooms and labs.
It is helps faculty to innovate and evaluate new approaches in clinical and community-based training.
It is needed to assess student attitudes, stress, communication skills, and improve mentoring systems.

✅ 6. To Develop and Test Nursing Theories

It is essential to build and expand the scientific body of nursing knowledge using conceptual models and frameworks.
It is allows theory-testing through research, giving practical relevance to abstract nursing concepts like care, comfort, empathy, or resilience.
It is encourages original thinking among nurse scholars, contributing to the intellectual growth of the discipline.
It is provides the foundation for future policy-making, education, and clinical protocols based on theory.

✅ 7. To Support Health Policies and Program Development

It is important to generate valid data that informs local, national, and international healthcare policies.
It is enables evidence-based decisions on nurse-patient ratios, service expansion, or new healthcare schemes.
It is helps governments and organizations assess the effectiveness of public health interventions (e.g., maternal health, TB, HIV).
It is necessary for advocacy and resource allocation based on community health needs and service gaps.

✅ 8. To Promote Nurse Empowerment and Leadership

It is through research that nurses can become thought leaders and policy influencers in the healthcare system.
It is helps nurses present evidence in administrative meetings, professional forums, and inter-professional teams.
It is contributes to the development of leadership, management, and administrative skills among nurses.
It is used in leadership roles to create action plans, training modules, and performance audits.

✅ 9. To Ensure Patient Safety and Legal Compliance

It is crucial in developing standardized procedures and risk-reduction strategies that ensure patient protection.
It is needed to document and justify clinical decisions in legal and accreditation processes.
It is provides ethical justification for new interventions through informed consent and ethical review.
It is used in reducing harm through incident tracking, error reporting, and continuous feedback systems.

✅ 10. To Meet the Changing Needs of Healthcare

It is needed to adapt nursing care in response to emerging diseases, lifestyle changes, and demographic shifts.
It is enables nurses to learn from pandemics (like COVID-19), technology integration (telehealth), and new healthcare models.
It is helps anticipate future challenges like aging populations, antimicrobial resistance, or mental health burden.
It is supports innovation in preventive care, chronic disease management, and primary care delivery.

✅ 11. To Study Community and Preventive Health Needs

It is useful to analyze community-specific data on nutrition, sanitation, immunization, and health literacy.
It is guides public health nurses in planning health camps, awareness programs, and follow-up visits.
It is identifies barriers to health access like economic conditions, beliefs, language, or transport.
It is enables prioritization of services based on prevalence rates, maternal-child health indicators, and seasonal outbreaks.

✅ 12. To Evaluate Nursing Interventions and Outcomes

It is necessary to assess the short-term and long-term results of nursing actions on patient health and recovery.
It is used to measure the impact of emotional support, communication, patient education, and bedside care.
It is helpful in assessing patient satisfaction scores, readmission rates, and compliance with discharge plans.
It is the foundation for improving protocols and training based on measured outcomes and statistical data.

Section 2 (25 mark)

Q.5 Write short notes (any four) (4×5=20)

a) Degree of freedom

INTRODUCTION

It is important in nursing research to analyze and interpret collected data using appropriate statistical methods, and for that, the concept of Degree of Freedom (DF) is essential.
It is a mathematical concept that is used to determine the number of values in a dataset that are free to vary, especially after certain restrictions or known parameters are applied.
It is widely used in calculating standard deviation, t-tests, ANOVA, chi-square tests, and many other statistical tools which are essential for making informed, evidence-based decisions in nursing and healthcare.

DEFINITION OF DEGREE OF FREEDOM

Degree of Freedom (DF) is defined as the number of independent values that can vary in an analysis without breaking any constraint applied to the dataset.

It is simply understood as :
DF=n–k
Where :

n = total number of observations or values
k = number of estimated parameters or restrictions

In many common tests, if only one constraint (like mean) is applied, then :
DF=n–1
It is an essential concept for estimating sampling variability, error terms, and statistical significance.

DETAILED EXPLANATION WITH SIMPLE UNDERSTANDING

Suppose you collect 5 weight values of patients: 50, 52, 54, 56, and 58 kg.
If you calculate the mean, and then try to recalculate the values keeping the mean constant, you’ll see that only 4 values can change freely — the 5th is fixed to keep the total constant.
Thus, the degree of freedom = 5 – 1 = 4.
It tells us that in a data set of 5 values with a known mean, only 4 values are free to vary independently, the last one is constrained by the total.

FORMULAS OF DEGREE OF FREEDOM IN DIFFERENT TESTS

Statistical Test	Formula for DF
Standard Deviation	DF = n – 1
Paired t-test	DF = n – 1
Independent t-test	DF = (n₁ – 1) + (n₂ – 1)
Chi-square test	DF = (number of rows – 1)(columns – 1)
ANOVA	DF Between = k – 1; DF Within = N – k

Note: n = sample size; k = number of groups

EXAMPLES IN NURSING RESEARCH CONTEXT

Example 1 : Standard Deviation

6 patients’ temperatures: 98.2, 98.4, 98.5, 98.3, 98.6, 98.7

To calculate standard deviation, we use the mean as a constraint.

DF = 6 – 1 = 5

Example 2 : Paired t-test

Comparing pre- and post-BP values of 15 patients.

Since the values are paired, DF = n – 1 = 15 – 1 = 14

Example 3 : Independent t-test

Comparing hemoglobin in two groups: Group A (n=20), Group B (n=25)

DF = (20 – 1) + (25 – 1) = 19 + 24 = 43

Example 4 : Chi-Square Test

A table showing infection status (Yes/No) vs. ward type (ICU/Ward/OT): 2 rows × 3 columns

DF = (2 – 1)(3 – 1) = 1 × 2 = 2

Example 5 : ANOVA

4 groups of nurses (General, ICU, Pediatric, Surgical), 10 nurses in each (N = 40)

Between-group DF = 4 – 1 = 3

Within-group DF = 40 – 4 = 36

6. IMPORTANCE OF DF IN NURSING RESEARCH

It is essential for selecting the appropriate critical value from statistical distribution tables (t, F, or chi-square).
It is used to calculate variability, error, and significance of differences between groups.
It is required for determining confidence intervals, which help nurses understand the precision of their findings.
It is vital for testing research hypotheses related to intervention outcomes, patient satisfaction, or nursing skill performance.
It is helpful in understanding how generalizable the findings are from a sample to the entire population.

7. LIMITATIONS AND CAUTIONS

It is misunderstood when multiple constraints are applied — calculation becomes complex.
It is sensitive to small sample sizes — leading to unstable results if not calculated properly.
It is different for different statistical tests — must use the correct formula for accuracy.
It is often overlooked in manual calculations — leading to wrong interpretations of significance.

b) Find the mean 7,3,5,4,6,4,5

Step 1 : Add all the numbers

7 + 3 + 5 + 4 + 6 + 4 + 5 = 34

Step 2 : Count how many numbers there are

7 numbers

Step 3 : Divide the total by the number of values

34/7 = 4.86

Final Answer : Mean = 4.86 (rounded to two decimal places)

d) Pie chart

INTRODUCTION

It is a well-known fact in nursing research and statistics that data visualization plays a critical role in effectively communicating results, and one of the most commonly used and visually intuitive graphs is the pie chart.
It is a circular statistical diagram that helps in displaying categorical data by dividing a circle into sectors (or “slices”) where each sector represents a portion or percentage of the total.
It is especially helpful in nursing when the researcher wants to show how data is distributed across different groups such as age groups, disease types, response levels, or service feedback categories.

DEFINITION

A pie chart is defined as a circular graph divided into slices, where each slice shows the relative proportion or percentage of a particular category in a dataset.
It is designed in such a way that the entire circle represents the whole dataset (100%), and each category’s contribution to that total is shown by a sector with a central angle.
The angle of each slice is calculated using the formula :

Angle of sector= (Value of category) × 360∘ / Total value

CHARACTERISTICS OF A PIE CHART

It is a circle-based graph that displays data proportionally, and each category occupies a slice of the pie.
It is limited to one variable at a time — suitable for univariate categorical data.
It is helpful to show how parts relate to a whole, making it easier to compare portions visually.
It is often color-coded for clarity, and slices may be labeled with percentages, angles, or values.
It is not suitable for data that changes over time — for that, line or bar charts are preferred.

STEPS TO CONSTRUCT A PIE CHART

Step 1: Collect the data and determine the total sum of all values.

Step 2: Calculate the proportion or percentage of each category.

Step 3: Multiply the percentage by 360° to get the angle for each sector.

Step 4: Draw a circle, mark the center, and use a protractor to draw each angle from the center.

Step 5: Label each slice with category name, percentage, and color for clarity.

EXAMPLE IN NURSING RESEARCH

A researcher conducted a survey on 100 hospital patients to measure satisfaction levels with nursing care.

Satisfaction Level	Number of Patients	Calculation of Angle
Very Satisfied	40	(40/100) × 360 = 144°
Satisfied	30	(30/100) × 360 = 108°
Neutral	20	(20/100) × 360 = 72°
Dissatisfied	10	(10/100) × 360 = 36°

When plotted as a pie chart :

Each group will be shown as a slice with the above angles.
Visual Result: The “Very Satisfied” group will be the largest sector, followed by “Satisfied,” etc.

USES OF PIE CHART IN NURSING RESEARCH

It is used to show demographic distribution, such as patient gender, age group, marital status, or religion.
It is effective in illustrating disease prevalence in community health surveys (e.g., anemia, hypertension, diabetes).
It is commonly used in patient feedback surveys, showing satisfaction with different nursing services.
It is helpful in audits and quality improvement, such as showing infection control performance or compliance rates.
It is used in presentations and reports to quickly summarize data in a visually appealing format.

ADVANTAGES OF PIE CHART

It is easy to construct and interpret even by those without statistical background.
It is ideal for displaying relative proportions in a clear, circular layout.
It is very useful for making comparisons between parts of a whole.
It is helpful in public health awareness, posters, and health promotion materials to simplify data for the general public.
It is visually attractive and ideal for summarizing survey data.

LIMITATIONS OF PIE CHART

It is not suitable for large data sets with many categories — becomes cluttered and unreadable.
It is difficult to compare very small differences between similar-sized categories.
It is not suitable for tracking data changes over time.
It is difficult to draw by hand without a protractor or software.
It is ineffective if exact values are more important than visual appeal.

e) Explain scales used to measure variable

In nursing and healthcare research, the measurement of variables is a crucial step that determines the accuracy and validity of results. A scale of measurement is the system or method by which a researcher assigns numerical or categorical values to variables.

These measurements help in organizing, analyzing, and interpreting data correctly. There are four fundamental scales of measurement — Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio — and each one provides a different level of information and determines what type of statistical analysis can be applied.

1️⃣ Nominal Scale (Categorical Scale)

It is the simplest and most basic level of measurement which is primarily used for labeling or categorizing variables into distinct groups that are mutually exclusive and exhaustive, but without any order or ranking.
In this scale, the numbers or labels assigned to each category are arbitrary and do not carry any quantitative meaning, and are used only for identification or classification purposes.
This type of scale is qualitative, meaning that it deals with names, labels, or categories rather than actual numeric values or rankings.
The nominal scale is widely used in nursing and medical research to classify patient information, such as gender (male/female), religion (Hindu/Muslim/Christian), blood group (A, B, AB, O), or diagnosis categories (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, tuberculosis).
The only permissible operation with nominal scale data is counting or calculating frequency, and no mathematical computation like mean or median is meaningful.
For example, assigning “1” for male and “2” for female does not mean female is higher or lower than male — it is just a coding system.

Nursing Research Example :

Classifying patients by marital status to study how it affects mental health.
Grouping patients by type of surgery to compare post-operative complications.

2️⃣ Ordinal Scale (Rank Order Scale)

The ordinal scale is a level above the nominal scale, where in addition to categorizing variables, it also provides a ranking or order among the categories.
However, although the rank order is meaningful, the intervals or differences between ranks are not necessarily equal or known, meaning that we cannot quantify the exact gap between two ranked items.
It is used when we need to determine which group is higher or lower, but not how much higher or lower.
In nursing practice and health sciences, ordinal scales are commonly used to assess subjective phenomena, such as the severity of pain (mild, moderate, severe), patient satisfaction (very satisfied to very dissatisfied), or functional ability (dependent, partially dependent, independent).
For example, a pain scale might have values from 0 to 10, but the difference between 2 and 3 is not necessarily the same as the difference between 6 and 7.
Ordinal data allows for statistical procedures such as median, mode, and non-parametric tests like Mann-Whitney U or Kruskal-Wallis tests, but not for calculation of mean or standard deviation.

Nursing Research Example :

Evaluating pain levels using a verbal rating scale (mild, moderate, severe) before and after medication.
Studying level of depression in patients using a standardized 5-point rating scale.

3️⃣ Interval Scale

The interval scale is a quantitative measurement scale that not only orders values and maintains equal intervals between them, but it does not have a true zero point, meaning that zero on this scale does not represent the complete absence of the variable.
This scale allows for a more precise comparison between variables, as it provides information on how much more or less one value is compared to another, due to the presence of equal units of measurement.
A classic example of an interval scale is temperature measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit, where the difference between 20°C and 30°C is the same as between 30°C and 40°C, but 0°C does not mean “no temperature”.
In nursing research, interval scales are used in standardized psychological tests, attitude measurement, or educational achievement tests.
The absence of a true zero makes ratios meaningless; for instance, we cannot say 40°C is twice as hot as 20°C, even though the difference is measurable.
Statistical analysis can include mean, standard deviation, correlation, and other parametric tests, as long as assumptions are met.

Nursing Research Example :

Measuring temperature variation in febrile patients over 12 hours post-antipyretic.
Assessing attitude scores of nurses towards terminally ill patients using an interval-based scale.

4️⃣ Ratio Scale

The ratio scale is the highest, most informative, and most precise level of measurement, as it possesses all the properties of an interval scale — equal intervals, ordering, and ranking — and also includes a true and absolute zero point.
A true zero on a ratio scale means complete absence of the variable being measured, which allows us to say not only how much more, but also how many times more one value is than another.
This makes it possible to perform all kinds of mathematical operations, including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Examples in healthcare include height (in cm or inches), weight (in kg), age (in years), heart rate (beats per minute), blood pressure, urine output (in mL), and drug dosage (in mg).
In nursing research, ratio scales are commonly used in clinical assessments, vital signs monitoring, and biomedical calculations for nutrition, fluid management, and medication.
Since this scale offers the richest level of data, it supports advanced statistical methods, including t-tests, ANOVA, regression, and more.

Nursing Research Example :

Measuring urine output in ml/hour to study fluid balance in post-operative patients.
Comparing weight gain in infants after nutritional supplementation.

Role of Scale Selection in Nursing Research

It is essential to select the appropriate scale because it ensures that the variable is measured accurately and meaningfully in the context of nursing research.
It is important for determining the type of data (nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio), which affects the entire research process, including tool construction and analysis methods.
It is directly influences the choice of statistical tests, such as whether to apply parametric (e.g., t-test, ANOVA) or non-parametric (e.g., chi-square) analysis.
It is helps the researcher to use the correct summary statistics, such as mean, median, mode, range, or standard deviation, based on the level of measurement.
It is crucial for creating valid and reliable research instruments, such as questionnaires, checklists, and rating scales used in clinical and academic research.
It is necessary for coding and entering data correctly into statistical software like SPSS or Excel, which requires data to be formatted according to its measurement scale.
It is guides the formulation of research objectives and hypotheses, ensuring that the type of measurement aligns with the purpose and scope of the study.
It is useful in interpreting results properly, as higher-level scales (like ratio) allow more detailed and mathematically accurate conclusions compared to nominal or ordinal scales.
It is supports evidence-based practice by enabling the nurse researcher to quantify outcomes, measure change, and apply findings to patient care settings.
It is reduces the risk of measurement error and bias, which could otherwise distort the results and lead to invalid or unreliable conclusions.

Q.6 Utilization of research findings (5 mark)

Definition

Utilization of research findings refers to the systematic application of results derived from scientific studies into real-world nursing practice, education, administration, and policy-making, in order to improve patient care, clinical outcomes, healthcare systems, and professional standards.
It is the final and most impactful step in the research process where knowledge is transferred from paper to practice.

Importance of Utilization of Research Findings

It helps in bridging the gap between theory and clinical practice, ensuring that nursing interventions are based on scientific evidence and not just tradition.
It improves the quality, safety, and effectiveness of patient care and enhances nursing decision-making.
It encourages continuous professional development and keeps the nursing workforce updated with the latest clinical protocols.
It supports standardization of care procedures, reducing variation and error in clinical settings.
It guides policy formation, training programs, and nursing curricula, ensuring that nurses are taught evidence-informed practices.

Types of Research Utilization in Nursing

1️⃣ Instrumental Utilization :

Instrumental utilization refers to the direct, hands-on application of research findings in real nursing practice to bring measurable changes in clinical protocols, patient care procedures, or healthcare delivery.
It is the most visible and concrete form of utilization where nurses or institutions modify or create new guidelines strictly based on the results of a specific study.
Example: After reading research that repositioning immobile patients every 2 hours reduces pressure ulcers, the hospital implements a 2-hourly turning schedule in ICU.

2️⃣ Conceptual Utilization :

Conceptual utilization involves the indirect use of research findings, where the study results are not applied as actions but are used to change the way nurses understand or think about a clinical issue.
It influences beliefs, mental models, and educational content, even though it may not lead to immediate change in routine practice.
Example: A nurse who reads research on emotional burnout may begin to recognize the need for self-care, even if formal wellness policies are not yet introduced.

3️⃣ Persuasive (Symbolic) Utilization :

In persuasive or symbolic utilization, research is used as a tool to influence others, such as administrators, policymakers, or funding bodies, to support a change, program, or policy.
It may be used in reports, presentations, or meetings to justify the need for resources, staffing changes, or training programs.
Example: A nurse manager cites research on nurse-patient ratios to request hiring more staff during budget discussions.

Steps in the Utilization of Research Findings

1️⃣ Dissemination of Research Findings :

Dissemination is the first and essential step where the completed research is shared or published so it can reach the potential users like nurses, educators, policymakers, and hospital administrators.
This can be done through research journals, online platforms, seminars, webinars, conferences, workshops, newsletters, or internal hospital bulletins.
Effective dissemination ensures that research is visible, accessible, and understandable to those who can apply it in practice.

2️⃣ Critical Appraisal of the Research :

Before utilizing findings, the research must be critically appraised to determine its validity, reliability, ethical soundness, and practical relevance.
Nurses or decision-makers must analyze the study design, sample size, tools used, results, bias, limitations, and applicability to their own clinical setting.
This ensures that only high-quality and appropriate studies are used in making decisions that impact patient care.

3️⃣ Adoption and Adaptation :

If the research is found to be valid and relevant, it is adopted (used directly) or adapted (modified to fit local conditions) in the clinical or institutional environment.
Adoption may involve revising protocols, care plans, or checklists, while adaptation may involve altering the frequency, tools, or target population based on facility capacity.
This step often includes the formation of policy committees or research implementation teams in the hospital or community health setting.

4️⃣ Implementation into Practice :

At this stage, the research findings are actually used in routine clinical or educational practice, involving training of staff, integrating into workflow, and including in guidelines.
Implementation is done through orientation programs, demonstration sessions, pilot testing, and feedback systems to ensure that the change is smoothly accepted.
For example, a newly researched medication administration technique may be introduced through skill lab practice or bedside application by trained staff.

5️⃣ Monitoring and Evaluation of Outcomes :

After implementation, the results or impact of the applied research must be monitored and evaluated over a period of time.
This is done to assess patient safety, satisfaction, efficiency, compliance, and improvement in clinical outcomes.
Evaluation tools like clinical audits, feedback forms, observation checklists, and performance metrics help identify gaps or areas needing revision.
Continuous monitoring ensures the sustainability and effectiveness of research-based changes in real-world scenarios.

Barriers to Research Utilization in Nursing

Lack of awareness or access to current research.
Resistance to change among staff.
Time constraints and workload pressure.
Limited skills in research interpretation or appraisal.
Lack of administrative support or funding.

Strategies to Improve Research Utilization

Conduct training sessions on evidence-based practice and research literacy.
Develop research-friendly policies and reward systems for evidence-based innovations.
Ensure access to digital libraries, journals, and clinical databases.
Encourage nurses to participate in research activities, audits, and QI projects.
Appoint clinical nurse researchers or EBP champions in hospital units.

Published May 4, 2025By mynursingapp

Categorized as RESEARCH & STAT-B.SC-PAPERS, Uncategorised