P.B.B.Sc.NURSING-F.Y-Biochemistry & BiophysicsJanuary -SAURASHTRA UNIVERSITY GUJARAT YEAR-JANUARY-2018

SECTION 1 (Biochemistry)

💘 1 Long essay (any 2 out of 3) 2×10-20

💚(1)Give a detailed account on regulation of blood Glucose level. How is Glucose Tolerance Test (GTT) carried out?

❥Answer:-

Regulation of blood Glucose level

Regulation of blood glucose levels involves a complex interplay of hormones and organs to maintain homeostasis. Here’s a detailed overview:

Pancreatic Regulation:

• Insulin: Produced by beta cells in the pancreas, insulin is released in response to elevated blood glucose levels. It promotes the uptake of glucose by cells, thereby reducing blood glucose levels.
• Glucagon: Produced by alpha cells in the pancreas, glucagon is released when blood glucose levels drop. It stimulates the liver to release glucose into the bloodstream, raising blood glucose levels.

Liver Regulation:

• The liver stores glucose in the form of glycogen and can release it into the bloodstream when needed, in response to signals like glucagon.
• It also converts amino acids and glycerol into glucose through a process called gluconeogenesis.

Muscle and Adipose Tissue:

• These tissues can take up glucose from the bloodstream in response to insulin and store it as glycogen (muscle) or triglycerides (adipose tissue).

👉 4. Glucose Tolerance Test (GTT):

• A GTT is a diagnostic test used to measure the body’s ability to metabolize glucose.
• Typically, the patient fasts overnight before the test to standardize conditions.
• In a standard GTT, the patient drinks a solution containing a known amount of glucose (usually 75 grams).
• Blood samples are taken at regular intervals (usually every 30 minutes) over a period of 2 hours.
• These blood samples are analyzed to measure glucose levels. A normal response would show a rise in blood glucose followed by a decline as insulin facilitates glucose uptake into cells.
• Abnormal results may indicate conditions such as diabetes mellitus or impaired glucose tolerance.

Interpretation:

• Normal: Blood glucose levels should return to fasting levels within 2 hours.
• Impaired glucose tolerance: Blood glucose levels remain elevated for longer than normal but not high enough to be classified as diabetes.
• Diabetes: Blood glucose levels remain high even after 2 hours.

The GTT provides valuable information about glucose metabolism and can help diagnose conditions related to glucose regulation, such as diabetes mellitus.

💚(2) Write the Neoglucogenesis (Glucogenesis) process in detail and explain the key enzymes action, on it.

Neoglucogenesis

Neoglucogenesis, also known as gluconeogenesis, is the metabolic pathway through which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors such as lactate, glycerol, and amino acids. It occurs primarily in the liver and to a lesser extent in the kidneys. The process is crucial for maintaining blood glucose levels during fasting or prolonged periods without carbohydrate intake.

Here’s a detailed explanation of the neoglucogenesis process:

1. Substrates: Neoglucogenesis uses various precursors, including lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids, to synthesize glucose. These substrates are derived from sources such as muscle tissue breakdown (lactate), triglyceride hydrolysis (glycerol), and protein degradation (amino acids).
2. Transport into the Mitochondria: The substrates enter the mitochondria of liver or kidney cells, where most of the neoglucogenesis enzymes are located.
3. Conversion to Pyruvate or TCA cycle intermediates: Depending on the precursor, the substrates are converted into either pyruvate, oxaloacetate, or other intermediates of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle.
4. Formation of Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP): The key step in neoglucogenesis involves the conversion of oxaloacetate to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) by the enzyme phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK). This reaction occurs in the cytoplasm. PEPCK catalyzes the decarboxylation and phosphorylation of oxaloacetate to form PEP, using GTP as a phosphate donor.
5. Conversion of PEP to Glucose: The final steps of neoglucogenesis involve the conversion of PEP to glucose. This process occurs in the cytoplasm and involves several enzymes, including those of the glycolysis pathway operating in the reverse direction. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase converts fructose-1,6-bisphosphate to fructose-6-phosphate, and glucose-6-phosphatase catalyzes the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to free glucose, which can then be released into the bloodstream.

👉The key enzyme action in neoglucogenesis ..

It is carried out by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK).

PEPCK catalyzes the conversion of oxaloacetate to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) in the cytoplasm.

This reaction is crucial because PEP is a key intermediate in the pathway, and it provides a substrate for the subsequent steps leading to glucose synthesis.

PEPCK accomplishes this conversion by removing a carbon dioxide molecule from oxaloacetate, resulting in the formation of PEP. Additionally, PEPCK phosphorylates PEP using GTP as a phosphate donor, further driving the reaction forward.

Overall, PEPCK plays a central role in neoglucogenesis by facilitating the formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors.

❥Answer:-

💚(3) Explain the various factors which influence enzyme activity. Give the diagnostic importance of the enzymes- Transaminase and Alkaline phosphatase.

❥Answer:-

enzymes activity

Enzyme activity is influenced by several factors:

1. Temperature: Enzymes work best within a specific temperature range. High temperatures can denature enzymes, while low temperatures can slow down their activity.
2. pH: Enzymes have an optimal pH at which they function most efficiently. Changes in pH can alter the enzyme’s structure and thus its activity.
3. Substrate concentration: As the concentration of substrate increases, the rate of enzyme activity also increases until the enzyme becomes saturated.
4. Enzyme concentration: Higher concentrations of enzymes usually result in faster reaction rates, assuming there is enough substrate available.
5. Inhibitors: Competitive and non-competitive inhibitors can decrease enzyme activity by either blocking the active site or changing the enzyme’s shape.
6. Cofactors and coenzymes: Many enzymes require non-protein molecules, like metal ions or vitamins, to function properly.

Regarding diagnosis importance:

• Enzymes: Enzyme levels in blood can indicate various health conditions. For example, elevated levels of certain enzymes, like alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), can signal liver damage or disease.
• Transmission: Understanding the transmission of enzymes can help in diagnosing genetic disorders. For instance, deficiencies in enzymes like glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) can lead to conditions like hemolytic anemia.
• Alkaline phosphatase: Elevated levels of alkaline phosphatase in the blood can indicate liver or bone problems. It’s commonly measured as part of liver function tests and can help diagnose conditions like hepatitis, liver cancer, or bone disorders.

💘2 Short essay (any 3 out of 5) 3×5 = 15

💚(1) Ketone Bodies

❥Answer:-

👉Ketone bodies are organic compounds produced by the liver from fatty acids during periods of low glucose availability, such as fasting, low-carbohydrate diets, or prolonged exercise.

The main ketone bodies are acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone.

1. Acetoacetate (AcAc):

It is the primary ketone body produced in the liver. It can be converted into both beta-hydroxybutyrate and acetone.

2. Beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB):

It is the most abundant ketone body in the blood.

It is produced from acetoacetate and is the preferred energy source for many tissues, including the brain, during ketosis.

3. Acetone: It is a breakdown product of acetoacetate. It is mostly exhaled through the breath, giving a characteristic fruity odor to the breath of individuals in ketosis.

Ketone bodies serve as an alternative fuel source to glucose, especially for organs like the brain, heart, and skeletal muscles, during times of low carbohydrate availability.

They are transported in the bloodstream to tissues where they are converted back into acetyl-CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle to produce ATP, the cell’s energy currency.

👉Ketosis, the metabolic state characterized by elevated levels of ketone bodies, has gained attention for its potential health benefits, including weight loss, improved insulin sensitivity, and enhanced cognitive function.

However, prolonged or uncontrolled ketosis can lead to ketoacidosis, a serious condition characterized by excessively high levels of ketones and acidity in the blood, which can be life-threatening if not treated promptly.

💚(2) Plasma proteins

❥Answer:-

👉Plasma proteins are essential components of blood plasma, playing crucial roles in maintaining various physiological functions.

They can be broadly categorized into main types:

1. Albumin: It’s the most abundant plasma protein, constituting about 50-60% of total plasma proteins. Albumin plays a critical role in maintaining osmotic pressure, which helps regulate the distribution of fluids between the blood and tissues.

Additionally, it serves as a carrier for various substances, including hormones, fatty acids, and drugs.

2. Globulins:

Globulins comprise about 35% of total plasma proteins

Thet are divided into three main types: alpha, beta, and gamma globulins.

Alpha Globulins: These include proteins like alpha-1 antitrypsin and alpha-2 macroglobulin, which play roles in enzyme regulation and immune function.

Beta Globulins: Beta globulins include transferrin, which transports iron, and complement proteins, which are part of the immune system’s complement system.

Gamma Globulins: Also known as immunoglobulins or antibodies, gamma globulins play a vital role in the immune response by recognizing and neutralizing pathogens like bacteria and viruses.

3. Fibrinogen:

Fibrinogen is a glycoprotein essential for blood clotting. When a blood vessel is damaged, fibrinogen is converted into fibrin by the enzyme thrombin.

Fibrin forms a mesh-like structure that helps trap blood cells, leading to the formation of a blood clot.

4. Regulatory Proteins: This category includes various proteins involved in enzymatic reactions, immune responses, and other regulatory processes in the body.

Examples include enzymes involved in blood clotting regulation, as well as proteins involved in inflammation and wound healing.

👉These plasma proteins collectively play crucial roles in maintaining homeostasis, transporting substances throughout the body, and defending against pathogens and foreign invaders.

💚(3) Urea cycle

❥Answer:-

👉The urea cycle, also known as the ornithine cycle, is a series of biochemical reactions that occur in the liver. Its primary function is to remove toxic ammonia from the bloodstream by converting it into urea, which is then excreted in urine.

Here’s a detailed breakdown of the urea cycle:

1. Ammonia Detoxification:
   The urea cycle starts with the conversion of ammonia (NH3) into carbamoyl phosphate in the mitochondria of liver cells. This reaction requires the enzyme carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I (CPS I) and uses one molecule of ATP.
2. Formation of Citrulline:
   Carbamoyl phosphate combines with ornithine to form citrulline. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC). Citrulline is transported out of the mitochondria into the cytosol.
3. Formation of Argininosuccinate:
   In the cytosol, citrulline reacts with aspartate to form argininosuccinate. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme argininosuccinate synthetase and requires ATP.
4. Formation of Arginine and Fumarate:
   Argininosuccinate is then cleaved into arginine and fumarate by the enzyme argininosuccinate lyase.
5. Formation of Urea and Regeneration of Ornithine:
   Arginine is hydrolyzed by the enzyme arginase to produce urea and regenerate ornithine. Ornithine can then re-enter the cycle to combine with another molecule of carbamoyl phosphate, restarting the cycle.

The urea produced in the liver is then transported to the kidneys, filtered out of the blood, and excreted in the urine.

Any disruption in the urea cycle can lead to the accumulation of ammonia in the blood, causing hyperammonemia, which is toxic to the brain and other tissues. This condition requires immediate medical attention and treatment.

💚(4) Lipoproteins

❥Answer:-

1. Definition: Lipoproteins are complex particles composed of lipids and proteins. They transport lipids (such as cholesterol and triglycerides) through the bloodstream.
2. Composition: Lipoproteins consist of a core of hydrophobic lipids (triglycerides and cholesterol esters) surrounded by a shell of amphipathic proteins, phospholipids, and free cholesterol.
3. Classification: Lipoproteins are classified based on their density, which reflects their lipid composition. The major classes include chylomicrons, very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDL), low-density lipoproteins (LDL), and high-density lipoproteins (HDL).
4. Function: Lipoproteins play crucial roles in lipid metabolism. They transport dietary lipids from the intestine (chylomicrons) and endogenous lipids from the liver (VLDL) to peripheral tissues. LDL transports cholesterol to tissues, while HDL removes excess cholesterol from cells and transports it back to the liver for excretion (reverse cholesterol transport).
5. Clinical Significance: Lipoprotein abnormalities, such as high levels of LDL cholesterol (“bad” cholesterol) or low levels of HDL cholesterol (“good” cholesterol), are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases like atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease. Monitoring lipoprotein levels is important for assessing cardiovascular risk and guiding treatment strategies.

(5) Maintenance of fluid and electrolyte balance.

❥Answer:-

Maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance is crucial for the proper functioning of the human body. Here’s a detailed overview:

Fluid Balance

Importance:

• Fluid balance ensures that the body’s cells have the right amount of water to function properly.

Mechanisms:

• Intake: Through drinking fluids and consuming foods with high water content.
• Output: Through urine, sweat, feces, and breathing.

Regulation:

• Thirst: The sensation that drives us to drink fluids.
• Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): Released by the pituitary gland to conserve water by reducing urine output.
• Aldosterone: Produced by the adrenal glands to regulate sodium and potassium levels, affecting fluid balance.

Electrolyte Balance

Importance:

• Electrolytes are minerals that carry an electric charge and are essential for various bodily functions, including nerve and muscle function, pH balance, and fluid balance.

Major Electrolytes:

• Sodium (Na+): Important for fluid balance, nerve function, and muscle contraction.
• Potassium (K+): Crucial for nerve and muscle function, especially the heart.
• Calcium (Ca2+): Essential for bone health, muscle contraction, and nerve function.
• Magnesium (Mg2+): Important for enzyme function, muscle contraction, and nerve function.
• Chloride (Cl-): Helps maintain fluid balance and is involved in acid-base balance.

Regulation:

• Kidneys: Filter blood and regulate electrolyte levels by reabsorbing or excreting ions.
• Hormones:
• Aldosterone: Increases sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion in the kidneys.
• Parathyroid Hormone (PTH): Increases calcium reabsorption from bones and enhances calcium reabsorption in the kidneys.
• Calcitonin: Reduces blood calcium levels by inhibiting bone breakdown and increasing calcium excretion in the kidneys.

Disorders

Dehydration:

• Occurs when fluid loss exceeds intake, leading to decreased blood volume and electrolyte imbalance.

Overhydration (Water Intoxication):

• Excessive water intake leading to dilution of electrolytes in the blood.

Electrolyte Imbalance:

• Can result from various factors, including dehydration, kidney disease, hormonal imbalances, and certain medications. Symptoms may include muscle cramps, weakness, irregular heartbeat, and confusion.

Management

Fluid Replacement:

• Oral rehydration solutions for mild dehydration.
• Intravenous fluids for severe dehydration or electrolyte imbalance.

Electrolyte Replacement:

• Dietary changes or supplements to correct specific electrolyte deficiencies.
• Medications to manage hormonal imbalances affecting electrolyte levels.

Regular monitoring of fluid intake and output, along with periodic electrolyte tests, helps maintain optimal fluid and electrolyte balance.

3 Short answers (any 1 out of 2) 1×3 = 3

(1) Name the abnormal constituents of urine.

❥Answer:-

Abnormal constituent

👉Abnormal constituents of urine can include glucose (glycosuria), blood (hematuria), protein (proteinuria), ketones (ketonuria), and bilirubin (bilirubinuria), among others. These can indicate various health conditions or diseases.

here are some abnormal constituents of urine along with their details:

1. Glucose (Glycosuria): Glucose should not normally be present in urine as the kidneys usually reabsorb all the filtered glucose back into the bloodstream.
2. Blood (Hematuria): The presence of red blood cells in urine can indicate bleeding in the urinary tract.
3. Protein (Proteinuria): Small amounts of protein may be present in urine, but significant amounts can indicate kidney damage or disease. Conditions like diabetes.
4. Ketones (Ketonuria): Ketones are produced when the body breaks down fat for energy, often seen in conditions like diabetes.
5. Bilirubin (Bilirubinuria): Bilirubin is a product of red blood cell breakdown. Elevated levels of bilirubin in urine can indicate liver disease.
6. White Blood Cells (Pyuria): Presence of white blood cells in urine indicates inflammation.
7. Crystals: Crystals in urine can form due to various reasons like dehydration, certain medications, or metabolic disorders.

It’s essential to consult a healthcare professional for a proper diagnosis and treatment if any abnormal constituents are detected in urine.

(2) Biological importance of lipids.

❥Answer:-

BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF LIPID

👉Lipids play several crucial roles in biological systems:

1. Energy Storage: Lipids store energy more efficiently than carbohydrates. Triglycerides, a type of lipid, store energy in adipose tissue for later use.
2. Cellular Structure: Lipids are major components of cell membranes. Phospholipids form the lipid bilayer, providing a barrier that separates the internal cellular environment from the external environment.
3. Insulation: Adipose tissue acts as an insulator, helping to maintain body temperature.
4. Protection: Lipids cushion and protect organs, such as the kidneys and heart, from physical damage.
5. Hormone Production: Steroid hormones, including testosterone and estrogen, are derived from lipids. These hormones regulate various physiological processes.
6. Digestion: Lipids aid in the digestion and absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and other nutrients.
7. Cell Signaling: Lipids serve as signaling molecules in various cellular processes, including inflammation, immune response, and apoptosis (programmed cell death).

SECTION II (Biophysics)

1 Long essay (any one out of two) 1×10 = 10

(1)Explain about measurements of pressure in the body.

❥Answer:-

Measurements of pressure in the body

Sure, let’s break down measurements of pressure in the body into key points:

Blood Pressure (BP):

• BP measures the force exerted by blood against the walls of arteries.
• It’s recorded as systolic pressure (during heart contraction) over diastolic pressure (when the heart is relaxed), e.g., 120/80 mmHg.
• High blood pressure (hypertension) can strain the heart and blood vessels, leading to serious health issues like heart disease and stroke.
• Low blood pressure (hypotension) can cause dizziness, fainting, and inadequate blood flow to vital organs.

Intracranial Pressure (ICP):

• ICP measures the pressure inside the skull.
• Elevated ICP can result from conditions like traumatic brain injury, brain tumors, or hydrocephalus.
• Monitoring ICP is crucial to prevent brain damage and assess the effectiveness of treatments.

Pulmonary Artery Pressure (PAP):

• PAP measures the pressure in the pulmonary artery, which carries blood from the heart to the lungs.
• Elevated PAP can indicate pulmonary hypertension, a condition where the arteries in the lungs become narrowed, making it harder for blood to flow through.
• Monitoring PAP helps diagnose and manage pulmonary hypertension, optimizing treatment and improving quality of life.

Intraocular Pressure (IOP):

• IOP measures the pressure inside the eye.
• Elevated IOP is a primary risk factor for glaucoma, a group of eye conditions that can lead to vision loss if left untreated.
• Regular measurement of IOP is essential for diagnosing and managing glaucoma, preserving vision and eye health.

Central Venous Pressure (CVP):

• CVP measures the pressure in the large vein (vena cava) that carries blood into the right atrium of the heart.
• It’s used to assess fluid status and cardiac function, particularly in critically ill patients or those undergoing major surgeries.
• Monitoring CVP helps guide fluid management and optimize cardiovascular function in various clinical settings.

(2) Explain about common electronic equipments used in patient care.

❥Answer:-

lectronic equipment used in patients care

👉here’s an overview of common electronic equipment used in patient care:

Electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG) Machines:

• Used to measure and record the electrical activity of the heart.
• Helps in diagnosing various heart conditions like arrhythmias, myocardial infarction, and heart failure.

Pulse Oximeters:

• Measures the oxygen saturation level in the blood.
• Often used in critical care settings, surgeries, and respiratory conditions to monitor oxygen levels.

Ventilators:

• Mechanical devices that support patients with breathing difficulties.
• Delivers oxygen to the lungs and removes carbon dioxide from the body.

Infusion Pumps:

• Delivers fluids, medications, or nutrients to the patient in controlled amounts.
• Ensures accurate and consistent administration of fluids or medications.

Blood Pressure Monitors:

• Measures the blood pressure of a patient.
• Helps in monitoring hypertension and other cardiovascular conditions.

Ultrasound Machines:

• Uses high-frequency sound waves to create images of internal organs and structures.
• Helps in diagnosing and monitoring conditions in various parts of the body.

Defibrillators:

• Used to restore normal heart rhythm by delivering an electric shock to the heart.
• Vital in emergency situations like cardiac arrest.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) Machines:

• Uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of the body’s internal structures.
• Useful for diagnosing a wide range of conditions from soft tissue injuries to tumors.

CT (Computed Tomography) Scanners:

• Combines X-rays with computer technology to create cross-sectional images of the body.
• Useful in diagnosing conditions like fractures, tumors, and infections.

Blood Gas Analyzers:

• Measures the levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, pH, and other gases in the blood.
• Helps in assessing respiratory and metabolic functions.

2 .Short essay (any 3 out of 4) 3×5 = 15

(1) Explain about Regulation of body temperature

❥Answer:-

Regulation of body temperature

The regulation of body temperature, also known as thermoregulation, is a complex physiological process crucial for maintaining the body’s internal environment within a narrow temperature range conducive to optimal cellular function.

Here’s a detailed explanation of how the body regulates its temperature:

1. Thermoreceptors: Specialized nerve cells called thermoreceptors are distributed throughout the body, primarily in the skin, hypothalamus, and internal organs. These receptors continuously monitor the temperature of the surrounding environment and the body’s internal temperature.
2. Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus, located in the brain, serves as the body’s thermostat, receiving signals from thermoreceptors and coordinating the thermoregulatory responses. It contains specialized regions that control both heat conservation and heat loss mechanisms.
3. Heat Production (Thermogenesis):

• Metabolism: The body generates heat as a byproduct of metabolic processes, particularly through the breakdown of nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
• Muscle Activity: Physical activity, including muscle contractions, generates heat. Shivering, a rapid contraction and relaxation of muscles, is a mechanism to increase heat production when the body is cold.

Heat Loss (Thermal Dissipation):

• Radiation: The transfer of heat energy from the body’s surface to cooler surroundings through electromagnetic waves. This is the primary mode of heat loss at rest.
• Conduction: The transfer of heat between objects in direct contact. For example, sitting on a cold surface can result in heat loss through conduction.
• Convection: The transfer of heat through the movement of air or water molecules across the body’s surface. Wind and water currents can enhance heat loss through convection.
• Evaporation: The conversion of liquid water on the skin’s surface into vapor, which absorbs heat from the body. Sweating is the primary mechanism of evaporative heat loss and is controlled by the hypothalamus.

1. Vasomotor Responses: Blood vessels play a crucial role in thermoregulation by regulating blood flow to the skin. When the body needs to lose heat, such as in hot conditions, blood vessels dilate (vasodilation), allowing more blood to flow near the skin’s surface, facilitating heat loss through radiation and convection. Conversely, in cold conditions, blood vessels constrict (vasoconstriction), reducing blood flow to the skin to conserve heat.
2. Behavioral Responses: Humans can consciously adjust their behavior to regulate body temperature. Examples include seeking shade or shelter in hot conditions, wearing appropriate clothing, and engaging in physical activities to generate heat.
3. Hormonal Regulation: Hormones, such as thyroid hormone and adrenaline, can influence metabolic rate and heat production. Additionally, hormones like antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and aldosterone regulate fluid balance, which indirectly affects thermoregulation by influencing sweat production and water loss.
4. Fever Response: During infection or illness, the body may elevate its temperature as a defense mechanism to inhibit the growth of pathogens. The hypothalamus raises the body’s set point, leading to increased heat production and decreased heat loss until the infection is resolved.

(2) Explain about Pace maker and Defibrillator

❥Answer:-

1. Pacemaker:

• A pacemaker is a small device implanted in the chest or abdomen to help control abnormal heart rhythms.
• It consists of a generator (battery) and leads (wires) that deliver electrical impulses to the heart muscle, regulating its rhythm.
• Pacemakers are used primarily to treat bradycardia (a slow heartbeat) by sending electrical signals to stimulate the heart to beat at a normal rate.
• Modern pacemakers can monitor the heart’s activity and adjust the pacing rate accordingly, providing customized treatment for each patient.
• They are often recommended for individuals with conditions such as sick sinus syndrome, atrioventricular block, or certain types of arrhythmias.

👉2. Defibrillator:

• A defibrillator is a device used to restore a normal heart rhythm by delivering an electric shock to the heart.
• It is primarily used in emergency situations such as cardiac arrest or life-threatening arrhythmias like ventricular fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia.
• There are two main types of defibrillators: automated external defibrillators (AEDs) and implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs).
• AEDs are portable devices found in public places like airports, schools, and shopping malls. They are designed to be used by laypeople in case of sudden cardiac arrest.
• ICDs are surgically implanted devices that continuously monitor the heart’s rhythm and deliver a shock if a dangerous arrhythmia is detected.
• ICDs also function as pacemakers, providing pacing therapy when needed to maintain a normal heart rate.

Both pacemakers and defibrillators play crucial roles in managing cardiac conditions and improving patients’ quality of life, whether by maintaining a steady heartbeat or by delivering life-saving interventions during emergencies.

(3) Uses of Radioactivity, Ultrasound and light in medicine.

❥Answer:-

1. Radioactivity:

• Diagnostic Imaging: Radioactive isotopes are used in various imaging techniques such as PET (Positron Emission Tomography) and SPECT (Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography) scans to detect diseases like cancer, heart conditions, and neurological disorders.
• Cancer Treatment: Radioactive materials like cobalt-60 or radioactive iodine are used in radiation therapy to target and destroy cancer cells while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissue.
• Sterilization: Radioactive sources are used to sterilize medical equipment and supplies to ensure they are free from bacteria and other pathogens.

👉2. Ultrasound:

• Diagnostic Imaging: Ultrasound uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images of structures inside the body. It is commonly used in obstetrics to monitor fetal development during pregnancy, as well as to diagnose conditions affecting organs such as the heart, liver, and kidneys.
• Therapeutic Applications: Ultrasound can also be used therapeutically to break up kidney stones or to promote healing in soft tissue injuries through techniques like therapeutic ultrasound therapy.

👉3. Light:

• Photodynamic Therapy (PDT): In PDT, light-sensitive drugs are administered to the patient, and then a specific wavelength of light is applied to activate the drugs, which selectively destroy cancer cells or treat certain skin conditions like acne or psoriasis.
• Laser Surgery: Lasers are used in various surgical procedures to cut, cauterize, or vaporize tissue with high precision and minimal damage to surrounding tissue. This includes procedures in ophthalmology (e.g., LASIK eye surgery), dermatology (e.g., removing birthmarks or tattoos), and dentistry (e.g., gum disease treatment).
• Optical Imaging: Light-based imaging techniques such as optical coherence tomography (OCT) are used to visualize and diagnose conditions in ophthalmology (e.g., retinal diseases) and cardiology (e.g., imaging blood vessels).

(4) Application of principles of Gravity in nursing

❥Answer:-

Gravity

The principle of gravity applies in nursing..

1. Patient Positioning: Nurses use gravity to assist or impede bodily fluids’ movement by adjusting patients’ positions. For example, positioning a patient with respiratory issues in a semi-upright position can help alleviate breathing difficulties by reducing the effect of gravity on lung expansion.
2. Wound Management: Gravity plays a role in wound care, especially in managing drainage. Positioning wounds in a way that allows gravity to assist with drainage can promote healing and reduce the risk of infection. Conversely, positioning wounds against gravity may prevent excessive drainage and help maintain dressings.
3. IV Therapy: Nurses consider gravity when administering intravenous (IV) fluids and medications. By adjusting the height of the IV bag relative to the patient’s body, nurses regulate the flow rate. Higher placement increases flow rate, while lower placement decreases it. This ensures a controlled infusion rate and prevents complications like fluid overload or air embolism.
4. Feeding Tubes: Gravity assists with the delivery of enteral feedings through feeding tubes. By positioning the patient appropriately, nurses ensure that gravity aids the flow of nutrients into the gastrointestinal tract. Adjusting the height of the feeding bag regulates the flow rate, preventing complications such as aspiration or gastric distension.
5. Fluid Balance: Nurses monitor patients’ fluid balance, considering the influence of gravity on fluid distribution within the body. For instance, patients with certain conditions, such as heart failure, may experience dependent edema due to fluid pooling in gravity-dependent areas like the lower extremities. Nurses may elevate the affected limbs to reduce edema.
6. Prevention of Pressure Ulcers: Gravity contributes to pressure ulcer development, particularly in immobile patients. Nurses use positioning devices and regular repositioning schedules to alleviate pressure on vulnerable areas, such as the sacrum and heels. By redistributing pressure, nurses prevent tissue ischemia and ulcer formation.
7. Respiratory Care: In patients with impaired cough reflex or secretion clearance, gravity-assisted positioning can facilitate the removal of respiratory secretions. Techniques such as postural drainage involve positioning patients to allow gravity to aid in mucus drainage from specific lung segments, improving ventilation and preventing complications like pneumonia.
8. Orthopedic Care: After orthopedic surgeries or injuries, nurses consider gravity’s effects when positioning patients for comfort and rehabilitation. For example, elevating the affected limb above heart level can reduce swelling and promote circulation, aiding in pain management and recovery.

By integrating the principle of gravity into various aspects of nursing care, healthcare professionals optimize patient outcomes and promote overall well-being.

3 Short answers (all compulsory) 6×2 = 12

(1) ECG

❥Answer:-

ECG, or Electrocardiogram, is a diagnostic test that records the electrical activity of the heart over a period of time using electrodes placed on the skin.

ECG works by measuring the electrical impulses generated by the heart as it beats, providing valuable information about the heart’s rhythm, rate, and any abnormalities such as arrhythmias or heart attacks.

(2) EEG

❥Answer:-

EEG, or Electroencephalogram, is a diagnostic test that measures and records the electrical activity of the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp.

EEG works by detecting and recording the electrical signals produced by brain cells, providing valuable information about brain function and helping diagnose various conditions such as epilepsy, sleep disorders, and brain injuries.

(3) EMG

❥Answer:-

EMG, or Electromyography, is a diagnostic test that measures the electrical activity produced by muscles to assess muscle health and function and diagnose neuromuscular disorders.

EMG involves inserting small needle electrodes into the muscles to record their electrical activity, providing valuable information about nerve function, muscle response to stimulation, and the presence of abnormalities such as nerve damage or muscle diseases.

(4) ECT

❥Answer:-

ECT, or Electroconvulsive Therapy, is a psychiatric treatment that involves inducing controlled seizures using electrical currents to alleviate symptoms of certain mental illnesses.

ECT works by passing electrical currents through the brain to induce a brief seizure, which is believed to lead to changes in neurotransmitter levels and brain activity, ultimately alleviating symptoms of depression, bipolar disorder, and certain types of psychosis.

(5) MRI-scan

❥Answer:-

An MRI scan, or Magnetic Resonance Imaging scan, is a non-invasive medical imaging technique that uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of the inside of the body, particularly soft tissues like the brain, spinal cord, and organs.

MRI works by aligning the hydrogen atoms in the body with the magnetic field and then using radio waves to disturb this alignment. When the radio waves are turned off, the atoms return to their original alignment, emitting signals that are detected by the MRI machine and used to create detailed images of the body’s internal structures.

(6) CT-scan.

❥Answer:-

A CT scan, or Computed Tomography scan, is a medical imaging procedure that uses X-rays and computer processing to create cross-sectional images of the body’s internal structures, providing detailed information about bones, organs, and soft tissues.

CT scans work by rotating an X-ray source around the body, taking multiple X-ray images from different angles. A computer then combines these images to create cross-sectional images, or slices, of the body. This allows healthcare professionals to examine the anatomy in detail and detect abnormalities or diseases.