ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY-NOVEMBER 2022

⏩SECTION – A (ANATOMY⏪

⏩I. Elaborate on: (1×12 = 12)

🔸1.a) Enumerate the different special sensory organs of the human body.

ANSWER:-

.Eyes (Vision)
The eyes are complex organs responsible for vision. They consist of various parts such as the cornea, iris, lens, retina, and optic nerve.
Light enters the eye through the cornea and is focused by the lens onto the retina, where photoreceptor cells called rods and cones convert light into electrical signals.
These signals are then transmitted through the optic nerve to the brain, where they are processed to create visual perception.

2.Ears (Hearing and Balance)
The ears are organs responsible for both hearing and balance. They consist of three main parts: the outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear.
Sound waves are collected by the outer ear and funneled through the ear canal to the eardrum in the middle ear.
The vibrations of the eardrum are transmitted through the middle ear bones to the cochlea in the inner ear, where they are converted into electrical signals and sent to the brain via the auditory nerve for interpretation.
The inner ear also contains structures such as the semicircular canals, which are responsible for detecting head movements and maintaining balance.

3.Nose (Smell)
The nose is the organ responsible for the sense of smell. It contains olfactory receptors that detect airborne chemical molecules.
When we inhale, these molecules are captured by the olfactory epithelium in the nasal cavity and stimulate the olfactory receptors.
Signals from these receptors are transmitted to the olfactory bulb in the brain, where they are processed to create the sensation of smell.

4.Tongue (Taste)
The tongue is the organ responsible for the sense of taste. It contains taste buds, which are clusters of specialized cells that detect different tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami.
When we eat or drink, molecules from the food or drink stimulate the taste buds on the tongue, triggering nerve impulses.
These impulses are sent to the brainstem and then to higher brain regions for processing, resulting in the perception of taste.

5.Skin (Touch and Temperature Sensation)
The skin is the largest sensory organ in the human body and is responsible for touch and temperature sensation.
Specialized receptors in the skin detect various stimuli such as pressure, vibration, temperature, and pain.

🔸b) Describe in detail about eye.

ANSWER:-

the human eye:

Structure of the Eye:
1.Cornea
The transparent, dome-shaped outer layer that covers the front part of the eye. It helps to focus light into the eye.

2.Iris
The colored part of the eye that regulates the amount of light entering the eye by adjusting the size of the pupil.

3.Pupil
The black circular opening in the center of the iris that allows light to enter the eye.

4.Lens
A transparent, flexible structure located behind the iris that focuses light onto the retina.

5.Retina
The innermost layer of the eye containing millions of photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) that convert light into electrical signals.

6.Optic Nerve
A bundle of nerve fibers that carries visual information from the retina to the brain for processing.

Function of the Eye:
1.Light Refraction
When light enters the eye, it first passes through the cornea, which bends or refracts the light rays. The lens further refracts the light to focus it onto the retina, creating a clear image.

2.Image Formation
The focused light forms an inverted image on the retina. Rods and cones in the retina detect this image and convert it into electrical signals.

3.Signal Transmission
The electrical signals generated by the photoreceptor cells are transmitted through the optic nerve to the brain
.
4.Visual Processing
In the brain, the visual signals are processed by various regions, including the visual cortex, to create the perception of sight. This process involves interpreting the size, shape, color, and motion of objects in the visual field.

Types of Photoreceptor Cells:
1.Rods
Responsible for vision in low light conditions (night vision) and detecting motion. They are more sensitive to light but do not distinguish colors.

2.Cones
Responsible for color vision and detail in bright light conditions. Cones are less sensitive to light but provide high-resolution vision and color discrimination.

Vision:
Rods and cones in the retina convert light into electrical signals, which are transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve.

The brain processes these signals to create the perception of sight, including the recognition of shapes, colors, and movement.

Different areas of the brain are responsible for specific aspects of vision, such as the visual cortex for image processing and interpretation.

⏩II. Write notes on: (3×5 = 15)

🔸1.Structural difference between Skeletal, Cardiac and Smooth muscles.

ANSWER:-

Here are the structural differences between skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles:

1. Skeletal Muscle:
   Location
   Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by tendons and are responsible for voluntary movements of the body.

Appearance
They appear striated or striped under a microscope due to the arrangement of actin and myosin filaments.

Nuclei
Skeletal muscle fibers are multinucleated, meaning they contain multiple nuclei per cell.

Control
Skeletal muscles are under conscious control and are voluntarily activated by the somatic nervous system.

Function
They produce movements of the body, maintain posture, and generate heat through muscle contractions (thermogenesis).

2. Cardiac Muscle:
   Location
   Cardiac muscle is found in the walls of the heart and is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body.

Appearance
Cardiac muscle cells are striated like skeletal muscle cells but are branched and interconnected.

Nuclei
Cardiac muscle cells typically have one or two centrally located nuclei per cell.

Control
Cardiac muscle contractions are involuntary and are regulated by the autonomic nervous system, specifically the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

Function
Cardiac muscle contractions generate the force needed to pump blood through the circulatory system, maintaining blood pressure and circulation.

3. Smooth Muscle:
   Location
   Smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow organs, blood vessels, and other structures throughout the body.

Appearance
Smooth muscle cells lack striations and have a spindle-shaped appearance under the microscope.

Nuclei
Smooth muscle cells usually have one centrally located nucleus per cell.

Control
Contractions of smooth muscle are involuntary and are controlled by the autonomic nervous system, including both sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, as well as hormonal signals.

Function
Smooth muscle contractions regulate the diameter of blood vessels, move substances through hollow organs (such as the digestive tract), and control the size of the pupils in the eyes, among other functions.

skeletal muscles are striated and under voluntary control, cardiac muscles are striated and found in the heart, and smooth muscles are non-striated and found in hollow organs, blood vessels, and other structures, with their contractions being involuntary.

🔸2.Tongue-Parts, Papillae, Muscles.

ANSWER:-

Parts of the Tongue:

1.Tip (Apex)
The front part of the tongue.

2.Body
The main portion of the tongue that occupies most of the oral cavity.

3.Root
The posterior part of the tongue that extends towards the throat (pharynx).

4.Dorsum
The upper surface of the tongue.

5.Underside (Inferior Surface)
The lower surface of the tongue.

6.Lingual Frenulum
A small fold of mucous membrane that attaches the tongue to the floor of the mouth.

Papillae of the Tongue:
1.Filiform Papillae
These are the most abundant papillae and are distributed throughout the dorsal surface of the tongue. They are small, cone-shaped structures that give the tongue its rough texture and are responsible for mechanical stimulation.

2.Fungiform Papillae
These mushroom-shaped papillae are scattered among the filiform papillae, particularly on the sides and tip of the tongue. They contain taste buds and are involved in taste perception.

3.Foliate Papillae
These papillae are located on the lateral margins of the posterior tongue. They contain taste buds and are involved in taste sensation, particularly sour tastes.

4.Circumvallate Papillae
These are large, dome-shaped papillae arranged in a V-shaped row at the back of the tongue. They are the largest papillae and contain numerous taste buds. They are involved in taste perception, particularly bitter tastes.

Muscles of the Tongue:
1.Intrinsic Muscles
Superior Longitudinal Muscle
Runs along the upper surface of the tongue. It shortens the tongue and curls the tip upward.

Inferior Longitudinal Muscle
Runs along the lower surface of the tongue. It shortens the tongue and curls the tip downward.

Transverse Muscle
Runs horizontally across the tongue. It narrows and elongates the tongue.

Vertical Muscle
Runs vertically within the substance of the tongue. It flattens and widens the tongue.

2.Extrinsic Muscles
Genioglossus Muscle
Originates from the chin (genial tubercle) and inserts into the tongue. It protrudes the tongue and depresses its center.

Hyoglossus Muscle
Originates from the hyoid bone and inserts into the side of the tongue. It depresses and retracts the tongue.

Styloglossus Muscle
Originates from the styloid process of the temporal bone and inserts into the tongue. It retracts and elevates the sides of the tongue.

🔸3.Circle of Willis.

ANSWER:-

The Circle of Willis is a vital circulatory structure located at the base of the brain. It is formed by a ring-like arrangement of arteries that supply blood to the brain and surrounding structures. Here’s an overview of the Circle of Willis:

Anatomy:
1.Anterior Cerebral Arteries (ACA)
These arteries arise from the internal carotid arteries and supply blood to the frontal lobes and the medial surfaces of the brain.

2.Middle Cerebral Arteries (MCA)
Arising from the internal carotid arteries, these arteries supply blood to the lateral surfaces of the brain, including parts of the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes.

3.Posterior Cerebral Arteries (PCA)
These arteries arise from the basilar artery and supply blood to the occipital lobes, part of the temporal lobes, and the thalamus.

4.Anterior Communicating Artery (ACoA)
This artery connects the left and right anterior cerebral arteries, forming a connection between the two sides of the brain.

5.Posterior Communicating Arteries (PCoA)
These arteries connect the posterior cerebral arteries with the internal carotid arteries, completing the circle and providing additional blood supply to the posterior part of the brain.

6.Basilar Artery
Formed by the fusion of the vertebral arteries, the basilar artery supplies blood to the brainstem and cerebellum.

7.Vertebral Arteries
These arteries arise from the subclavian arteries and merge to form the basilar artery, supplying blood to the brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord.

Function:
The Circle of Willis serves as a safety mechanism, ensuring continuous blood supply to the brain even if one of the major arteries supplying it becomes occluded or blocked.
Collateral circulation is facilitated by the interconnections between the arteries of the Circle of Willis. If blood flow is compromised in one artery, blood can be rerouted through other pathways to maintain perfusion to vital brain regions.
This collateral circulation is particularly important in conditions such as stroke, where rapid restoration of blood flow to ischemic (deprived of oxygen) brain tissue can minimize damage and improve outcomes.

⏩III. Short answers on: (5×2 = 10)

🔸1.Name the bones present in the Ear.

ANSWER:-

The three bones in the middle ear are:

1.Malleus (Hammer):
This bone is attached to the eardrum and transmits vibrations from the eardrum to the incus.

2.Incus (Anvil):
The incus receives vibrations from the malleus and transmits them to the stapes.

3.Stapes (Stirrup):
The stapes is the smallest bone in the human body and is connected to the oval window of the cochlea. It receives vibrations from the incus and transmits them into the inner ear fluid.

🔸2.Name the lobes of Cerebrum.

ANSWER:-

The cerebrum has four lobes:

1.Frontal lobe:
Located at the front of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as decision making, planning, and voluntary movements.

2.Parietal lobe:
Positioned behind the frontal lobe, it processes sensory information like touch, temperature, and pain, as well as spatial awareness.

3.Temporal lobe:
Found on the sides of the brain, it plays a role in auditory processing, memory, and language comprehension.

4.Occipital lobe:
Located at the back of the brain, it primarily handles visual processing.

🔸3.Give any two examples of Cuboidal epithelium.

ANSWER:-

two examples of cuboidal epithelium are:

1.Kidney tubules:
Cuboidal epithelial cells line the kidney tubules, where they are involved in processes like reabsorption and secretion.

2.Thyroid gland follicles:
Cuboidal epithelial cells form the lining of the follicles within the thyroid gland, where they produce and secrete thyroid hormones.

🔸4.Name the veins used for Intravenous Injections.

ANSWER:-

The veins commonly used for intravenous injections include:

1.Median cubital vein:
Located in the antecubital fossa (the bend of the elbow), it is often the first choice for venipuncture due to its accessibility and size.

2.Cephalic vein:
Found on the outer side of the arm, it is another common choice for venipuncture.

3.Basilic vein:
Situated on the inner side of the arm, it is also frequently used for intravenous injections, especially when the other veins are not accessible.

These veins are preferred due to their larger size and easier accessibility for inserting a needle for intravenous injections.

🔸5.Name the layers of Adrenal Cortex.

ANSWER:-

The adrenal cortex consists of three main layers:

1.Zona glomerulosa:
This outermost layer produces mineralocorticoids, primarily aldosterone, which helps regulate electrolyte balance and blood pressure.

2.Zona fasciculata:
The middle layer synthesizes glucocorticoids, primarily cortisol, which regulates metabolism, immune response, and stress response.

3.Zona reticularis:
The innermost layer produces androgens, including dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and androstenedione, which serve as precursors for sex hormones and contribute to secondary sexual characteristics.

⏩SECTION-B (PHYSIOLOGY⏪

⏩I. Elaborate on:(1×13 = 13)

🔸1.Define Synapse. Describe in detail about structure and functions of synapse. Add a note on properties of synapse.

ANSWER:-

A synapse is a specialized junction between two neurons or between a neuron and an effector cell, such as a muscle or gland cell, where communication occurs. It allows for the transmission of signals, typically in the form of chemical or electrical impulses, from one cell to another.

Structure of a Synapse:

1.Presynaptic Terminal:
This is the end of the axon of the presynaptic neuron. It contains synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitter molecules.

2.Synaptic Cleft:
The space between the presynaptic terminal and the postsynaptic cell. Neurotransmitters are released into this space.

3.Postsynaptic Membrane:
The membrane of the neuron or effector cell that receives the neurotransmitter signals. It contains receptors that bind to specific neurotransmitters.

Functions of a Synapse:

1.Signal Transmission:
When an action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. These neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, generating a new electrical signal in the postsynaptic neuron or effector cell.

2.Signal Integration:
Synapses play a crucial role in integrating incoming signals from multiple presynaptic neurons. The postsynaptic neuron can summate these signals, allowing for complex information processing and response generation.

3.Plasticity:
Synapses can undergo structural and functional changes in response to activity, a phenomenon known as synaptic plasticity. This includes mechanisms such as long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), which are believed to underlie learning and memory processes.

Properties of Synapses:

1.Chemical vs. Electrical:
Synapses can be either chemical or electrical. Chemical synapses use neurotransmitters to transmit signals across the synaptic cleft, whereas electrical synapses allow for direct electrical communication between cells via gap junctions.

2.Directionality:
Synapses are typically directional, with signals flowing from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron or effector cell.

3.Synaptic Transmission:
The transmission of signals across a synapse can be excitatory or inhibitory, depending on the neurotransmitter and its effect on the postsynaptic membrane potential.

4.Plasticity:
Synapses exhibit plasticity, allowing for activity-dependent changes in strength and efficacy, which contribute to learning, memory, and adaptive behaviors.

⏩II. Write notes on: (3×5 = 15)

🔸1.Diabetes mellitus.

ANSWER:-

Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by elevated levels of blood glucose, resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. It encompasses various types, including type 1, type 2, gestational diabetes, and other rare forms.

Type 1 Diabetes:
Often diagnosed in childhood or adolescence, type 1 diabetes results from the autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, leading to an absolute insulin deficiency. Management typically involves lifelong insulin therapy.

Type 2 Diabetes:
More prevalent, type 2 diabetes arises from insulin resistance coupled with inadequate insulin secretion. It’s associated with factors like obesity, physical inactivity, and genetics. Lifestyle modifications, oral medications, and insulin may be prescribed for management.

Gestational Diabetes:
Occurring during pregnancy, gestational diabetes involves high blood sugar levels that may resolve postpartum. However, affected women are at increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes later.

Complications:
Uncontrolled diabetes can lead to serious complications affecting the eyes (diabetic retinopathy), kidneys (diabetic nephropathy), nerves (diabetic neuropathy), and cardiovascular system (increased risk of heart disease and stroke).

Management:
Effective management entails regular monitoring of blood glucose levels, adherence to a balanced diet, regular exercise, and medication as prescribed. It also involves maintaining a healthy lifestyle to prevent or delay complications.

Prevention:
While type 1 diabetes cannot be prevented, type 2 diabetes can often be delayed or prevented through lifestyle modifications, including maintaining a healthy weight, engaging in regular physical activity, and consuming a balanced diet.

🔸2.Micturition.

ANSWER:-

Micturition

Micturition, commonly known as urination or voiding, is the process of expelling urine from the bladder through the urethra to the outside of the body. It is a complex physiological process controlled by the nervous system and involves coordination between the bladder, urethra, and associated muscles.

Process:

1.Filling Phase (Storage):
Urine produced by the kidneys flows into the bladder through the ureters. As the bladder fills, stretch receptors in its walls send signals to the central nervous system, indicating the need to void.

2.Urge to Void:
When the bladder reaches a certain volume, nerve impulses from the stretch receptors stimulate the sensation of urgency, prompting the individual to initiate micturition voluntarily.

3.Voiding Phase (Emptying):
During voiding, the detrusor muscle of the bladder contracts, while the internal urethral sphincter relaxes involuntarily under the control of the autonomic nervous system. Simultaneously, the individual voluntarily relaxes the external urethral sphincter, allowing urine to flow from the bladder through the urethra and out of the body.

4.Completion:
Once the bladder is empty, the detrusor muscle relaxes, and the internal urethral sphincter contracts to prevent urine leakage until the next micturition cycle.

Control Mechanisms:

1.Central Nervous System (CNS):
The micturition reflex is coordinated by centers in the brainstem and spinal cord, which receive and integrate sensory signals related to bladder filling and initiate the appropriate motor responses.

2.Pontine Micturition Center (PMC):
Located in the brainstem, the PMC facilitates the coordination of bladder contraction and sphincter relaxation during voiding.

3.Cerebral Cortex:
Higher brain centers, including the cerebral cortex, play a role in the voluntary control of micturition, allowing individuals to initiate or suppress urination consciously.

Factors Affecting Micturition:

1.Age:
Micturition patterns and bladder function may change with age, leading to increased frequency, urgency, or incontinence in older adults.

2.Medical Conditions:
Certain medical conditions, such as urinary tract infections, neurological disorders, and prostate enlargement, can affect micturition.

3.Medications:
Some medications may influence bladder function and micturition, either by increasing bladder contraction or relaxing sphincter muscles.

🔸3.Functions of placenta.

ANSWER:-

The placenta serves several crucial functions during pregnancy, facilitating the exchange of nutrients, gases, and waste products between the mother and the developing fetus. Some of its key functions include:

1.Nutrient and Gas Exchange:
The placenta acts as a conduit for the transfer of nutrients, such as glucose, amino acids, and vitamins, from the mother’s bloodstream to the fetus. It also facilitates the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide, allowing the fetus to obtain oxygen for metabolism and remove carbon dioxide.

2.Waste Removal:
In addition to exchanging gases and nutrients, the placenta assists in removing waste products, including carbon dioxide and other metabolic wastes, from the fetal circulation, which are then eliminated via the mother’s bloodstream.

3.Hormone Production:
The placenta produces hormones essential for maintaining pregnancy and supporting fetal development. These hormones include human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which helps sustain the early pregnancy and stimulates the production of progesterone by the corpus luteum, and human placental lactogen (hPL), which helps regulate maternal metabolism and fetal growth.

4.Immunological Barrier:
The placenta acts as a barrier between the maternal and fetal circulations, protecting the fetus from maternal immune responses while allowing the transfer of antibodies from the mother to the fetus, providing passive immunity to the newborn.

5.Endocrine Function:
Besides hormone production, the placenta also plays a role in converting maternal hormones, such as androgens, into estrogen, which helps regulate maternal physiological changes during pregnancy.

6.Protection:
The placenta serves as a protective barrier, shielding the fetus from physical trauma and infections by preventing the entry of harmful substances and pathogens into the fetal bloodstream.

⏩III. Short answers on:(5×2 = 10)

🔸1.What is surfactant?

ANSWER:-

Surfactant, short for surface-active agent, is a substance that reduces the surface tension between two liquids or between a liquid and a solid. It is composed of molecules with both hydrophilic (water-attracting) and hydrophobic (water-repelling) regions, allowing it to interact with and alter the properties of interfaces between different substances.

In biological contexts, surfactants play a critical role in various physiological processes, particularly in the respiratory system. One of the most important functions of surfactant is in the lungs, where it helps to maintain the stability and function of the alveoli, the tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs.

In the lungs, surfactant is produced by specialized cells called type II alveolar cells and is secreted into the thin layer of fluid that lines the inner surface of the alveoli. It lowers the surface tension of this fluid, preventing the alveoli from collapsing completely during exhalation and reducing the effort required to inflate them during inhalation. This property is essential for efficient gas exchange, as it helps to keep the alveoli open and allows oxygen to enter the bloodstream while facilitating the removal of carbon dioxide.

🔸2.Frank starling’s law.

ANSWER:-

Frank-Starling law of the heart, also known as the Frank-Starling mechanism, describes the relationship between the preload (the initial stretching of the heart muscle fibers just before contraction) and the stroke volume (the volume of blood pumped out by the heart with each contraction).

The law states that within physiological limits, the stroke volume of the heart increases in response to an increase in preload, and vice versa, provided that all other factors remain constant. In other words, the greater the volume of blood in the heart during diastole (the filling phase), the greater the force of contraction during systole (the pumping phase), leading to a higher stroke volume.

This relationship is based on the intrinsic properties of cardiac muscle fibers. When the heart chambers fill with more blood during diastole, the cardiac muscle fibers are stretched to a greater extent. This stretching increases the overlap of the actin and myosin filaments within the muscle fibers, leading to a more optimal arrangement for cross-bridge formation during contraction. As a result, the force of contraction generated by the cardiac muscle fibers is increased, leading to a more forceful ejection of blood from the heart during systole.

🔸3.Types of leucocytes.

ANSWER:-

Leukocytes, also known as white blood cells, are a vital component of the immune system and play a crucial role in defending the body against infections and foreign invaders. There are several types of leukocytes, classified into two main categories based on their appearance and function: granulocytes and agranulocytes.

Granulocytes:

1.Neutrophils:
Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cell and are known for their role in phagocytosis, the process of engulfing and destroying pathogens. They are highly mobile and are often the first responders to sites of infection or inflammation.

2.Eosinophils:
Eosinophils are involved in allergic reactions and parasitic infections. They release substances that help to kill parasites and modulate the inflammatory response. Eosinophilia, an increase in eosinophil levels, is often seen in allergic conditions and parasitic infections.

3.Basophils:
Basophils are the least common type of white blood cell and play a role in allergic reactions and inflammation. They release histamine and other substances that contribute to the inflammatory response. Basophilia, an increase in basophil levels, is less common but can occur in certain diseases.

Agranulocytes:

1.Lymphocytes:
Lymphocytes are involved in adaptive immunity, including both cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immune responses. There are three main types of lymphocytes: T cells, B cells, and natural killer (NK) cells. T cells play a central role in cell-mediated immunity, while B cells are responsible for antibody production. NK cells are part of the innate immune system and are involved in recognizing and destroying infected or abnormal cells.

2.Monocytes:
Monocytes are large, phagocytic cells that circulate in the bloodstream before migrating into tissues, where they differentiate into macrophages or dendritic cells. Macrophages are involved in phagocytosis and antigen presentation, while dendritic cells play a crucial role in activating T cells and initiating immune responses.

🔸4.Primary taste.

ANSWER:-

The primary tastes, also known as basic tastes, are the fundamental taste sensations that can be perceived by the human tongue. These primary tastes are:

1.Sweet:
Sweetness is associated with the taste of sugars and compounds that mimic sugar. It is often perceived as pleasurable and is commonly found in foods such as fruits, desserts, and sweetened beverages.

2.Sour:
Sourness is the taste associated with acidic substances, such as citric acid in citrus fruits or acetic acid in vinegar. Sour taste receptors are sensitive to the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.

3.Salty:
Saltiness is the taste associated with the presence of sodium ions (Na+) and other electrolytes. It is commonly found in table salt (sodium chloride) and salty foods such as potato chips and pretzels.

4.Bitter:
Bitterness is often perceived as unpleasant and is associated with many compounds, including alkaloids found in plants, such as caffeine, quinine, and various types of vegetables. Bitter taste receptors evolved as a defense mechanism against potentially harmful substances.

5.Umami:
Umami, which means “pleasant savory taste” in Japanese, is associated with the taste of glutamate, an amino acid found in foods such as meat, cheese, and tomatoes. Umami enhances the flavor of foods and is often described as savory or meaty.

🔸5.Name the bile salts.

ANSWER:-

Bile salts are a group of amphipathic molecules derived from cholesterol and synthesized by the liver. They play a crucial role in the digestion and absorption of fats in the small intestine. The primary bile salts include:

1.Cholic Acid:
Cholic acid is one of the two main bile acids synthesized in the liver. It is conjugated with glycine or taurine to form bile salts.

2.Chenodeoxycholic Acid:
Chenodeoxycholic acid is the other main bile acid synthesized in the liver. Like cholic acid, it is conjugated with glycine or taurine to form bile salts.

These two primary bile acids, cholic acid, and chenodeoxycholic acid, are further metabolized in the liver to form secondary bile acids, such as deoxycholic acid and lithocholic acid, which also contribute to the composition of bile. When released into the small intestine, bile salts aid in the emulsification and digestion of dietary fats, facilitating their absorption by forming micelles and increasing the surface area for enzymatic action.