NUTRITION & BIOCHEMISTRY-SEPTEMBER:-2019 (BKNMU)
⏩ SECTION-I (NUTRITION)⏪
⏩Q:1 Answer the following question (Any one) 15
🔸1) Explain Carbohydrates in Detail.
ANSWER:- Carbohydrates are organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, typically in a ratio of 1:2:1. They are one of the three macronutrients essential for human nutrition, alongside proteins and fats. Carbohydrates serve as a primary source of energy for the body, particularly for the brain and muscles.
There are three main types of carbohydrates:
1.Simple Carbohydrates These are composed of one or two sugar molecules and are quickly digested and absorbed into the bloodstream, leading to rapid spikes in blood sugar levels. Examples include glucose, fructose (found in fruits), and sucrose (table sugar). Simple carbohydrates are often found in processed foods, sweets, and sugary beverages.
2.Complex Carbohydrates These consist of longer chains of sugar molecules and take longer to digest, providing a more sustained release of energy. Examples include starches found in grains (such as rice, wheat, and oats), legumes (like beans and lentils), and starchy vegetables (such as potatoes and corn). Complex carbohydrates also contain important nutrients like vitamins, minerals, and fiber, which are beneficial for overall health.
3.Dietary Fiber Fiber is a type of complex carbohydrate that cannot be fully digested by the body. It’s found in plant-based foods like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, and seeds. Fiber plays a crucial role in maintaining digestive health by promoting regular bowel movements, preventing constipation, and reducing the risk of digestive disorders like diverticulitis and hemorrhoids. Additionally, fiber helps regulate blood sugar levels by slowing down the absorption of sugars from carbohydrates, which can prevent spikes and crashes in blood glucose levels.
Carbohydrates play various roles in the body, including:
Providing energy Glucose, derived from carbohydrates, is the primary fuel for the brain and muscles. During digestion, carbohydrates are broken down into glucose, which is then transported through the bloodstream to cells where it is used for energy production.
Supporting cellular function Carbohydrates are necessary for synthesizing DNA, RNA, and cell membranes. They also play a role in cell signaling and communication, which are essential for various physiological processes in the body.
Promoting digestive health Dietary fiber adds bulk to the stool and helps regulate bowel movements, preventing constipation and promoting regularity. Fiber also nourishes beneficial bacteria in the gut, which contribute to overall gut health and may reduce the risk of certain digestive disorders like irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and colon cancer.
Regulating blood sugar levels Complex carbohydrates and fiber help stabilize blood sugar levels by slowing down the absorption of sugars from food. This prevents rapid spikes and crashes in blood glucose levels, which can help reduce the risk of insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome.
🔸2) Define cooking. Benefits of cooking. Explain various methods of cooking.
ANSWER:- Cooking is the process of preparing food through the application of heat, either by using various cooking techniques or kitchen appliances. It involves transforming raw ingredients into edible dishes by combining different flavors, textures, and nutrients to create enjoyable and nourishing meals.
Benefits of Cooking:
1.Nutritional Value Cooking allows for the enhancement of the nutritional value of foods. By cooking vegetables, for example, you can break down tough fibers and increase the availability of nutrients like vitamins and minerals.
2.Flavor Enhancement Cooking can enhance the flavor and aroma of foods through processes like caramelization, browning, and Maillard reaction, resulting in more enjoyable and appetizing meals.
3.Food Safety Proper cooking kills harmful bacteria, parasites, and other pathogens present in raw foods, reducing the risk of foodborne illnesses.
4.Creativity and Self-Expression Cooking provides an opportunity for creativity and self-expression. Experimenting with different ingredients, flavors, and cooking techniques allows individuals to create unique dishes that reflect their personal tastes and preferences.
5.Economic Benefits Cooking at home is often more cost-effective than dining out or purchasing pre-prepared meals, helping individuals save money and manage their food budget more efficiently.
6.Cultural Preservation Cooking traditional dishes and recipes helps preserve cultural heritage and traditions, passing down culinary knowledge and techniques from one generation to the next.
Various Methods of Cooking:
1.Boiling Boiling involves cooking food in hot water or broth at or near its boiling point. It’s commonly used for cooking pasta, rice, vegetables, and eggs.
2.Steaming Steaming involves cooking food by exposing it to steam from boiling water. It’s a gentle cooking method that helps retain the natural flavors, colors, and nutrients of foods, particularly vegetables and seafood.
3 Baking Baking involves cooking food in an oven using dry heat. It’s commonly used for baking bread, cakes, cookies, and casseroles.
4.Roasting Roasting is similar to baking but typically involves cooking meat, poultry, or vegetables at higher temperatures to achieve a crispy exterior and tender interior.
5.Grilling Grilling involves cooking food directly over an open flame or heat source, typically on a grill or barbecue. It’s a popular method for cooking meats, poultry, fish, and vegetables, imparting a smoky flavor and charred exterior.
6.Sautéing Sautéing involves cooking food quickly in a small amount of oil or fat over medium to high heat. It’s commonly used for cooking vegetables, meats, and seafood, allowing for fast cooking and caramelization of flavors.
7.Frying Frying involves cooking food by submerging it in hot oil or fat. It can be done using shallow frying (pan-frying) or deep frying methods. While frying adds flavor and texture to foods, it’s important to use moderation due to the high fat content.
8.Stir-Frying Stir-frying involves cooking food quickly in a wok or skillet over high heat while continuously stirring or tossing the ingredients. It’s a popular cooking method in Asian cuisine, allowing for fast cooking and the retention of nutrients and textures in vegetables and meats.
⏩Q:2 Write short notes on: (Any four) 20
🔸1) Fat soluble vitamins.
ANSWER:-Fat-soluble vitamins are a group of vitamins that are soluble in dietary fats and are absorbed along with fats in the small intestine. These vitamins are stored in the body’s fatty tissues and liver, unlike water-soluble vitamins, which are not stored in large amounts and are excreted in the urine if consumed in excess. Fat-soluble vitamins play important roles in various physiological functions and are essential for overall health.
There are four fat-soluble vitamins:
1.Vitamin A Also known as retinol, vitamin A is important for vision, immune function, skin health, and cell growth and differentiation. It’s found in animal products like liver, fish, dairy products, and fortified foods, as well as in plant-based sources like carrots, sweet potatoes, spinach, and kale.
2.Vitamin D Often referred to as the “sunshine vitamin,” vitamin D is primarily synthesized by the body when the skin is exposed to sunlight. It plays a crucial role in calcium absorption and bone health, immune function, and modulation of cell growth and differentiation. Dietary sources of vitamin D include fatty fish (such as salmon and mackerel), egg yolks, fortified dairy and plant-based milk, and supplements.
3.Vitamin E Vitamin E is a group of antioxidants that protect cells from damage caused by free radicals. It’s important for immune function, skin health, and the protection of cell membranes. Good dietary sources of vitamin E include nuts, seeds, vegetable oils (such as wheat germ oil and sunflower oil), and green leafy vegetables.
4.Vitamin K Vitamin K is essential for blood clotting, bone metabolism, and cardiovascular health. There are two main forms of vitamin K: K1 (phylloquinone), found in green leafy vegetables like spinach, kale, and broccoli, and K2 (menaquinone), found in fermented foods, animal products, and certain bacteria in the gut.
🔸2) Role of nurse in Nutrition.
ANSWER:- Nurses play a crucial role in nutrition care across various healthcare settings, including hospitals, clinics, long-term care facilities, and community health organizations. Their responsibilities in nutrition care encompass several important roles:
1.Assessment Nurses assess patients’ nutritional status by conducting thorough evaluations of their dietary intake, weight history, medical history, and physical examination. They may also use screening tools and assessments to identify patients at risk of malnutrition or nutritional deficiencies.
2.Education and Counseling Nurses provide education and counseling to patients and their families on various aspects of nutrition, including healthy eating habits, dietary modifications for managing chronic conditions, and lifestyle changes to promote overall wellness. They may offer guidance on meal planning, portion control, food choices, and the importance of balanced nutrition.
3.Monitoring and Support Nurses monitor patients’ nutritional intake, hydration status, and response to dietary interventions throughout their healthcare journey. They collaborate with other members of the healthcare team to develop individualized nutrition care plans and provide ongoing support to patients in achieving their nutritional goals.
4.Advocacy Nurses advocate for patients’ nutritional needs and preferences, ensuring that they receive appropriate dietary accommodations and interventions based on their medical conditions, cultural backgrounds, and personal preferences. They may also advocate for policies and initiatives that promote access to healthy food options and nutrition education in healthcare settings and communities.
5.Collaboration Nurses collaborate with registered dietitians, physicians, therapists, and other healthcare professionals to coordinate comprehensive nutrition care for patients. They participate in interdisciplinary team meetings, share relevant patient information, and contribute to the development and implementation of integrated care plans.
6.Prevention and Management of Malnutrition Nurses play a key role in the prevention and management of malnutrition by identifying individuals at risk, implementing nutrition interventions, and monitoring their nutritional status over time. They may provide specialized nutritional support, such as enteral or parenteral nutrition, for patients unable to meet their dietary needs orally.
7.Health Promotion Nurses promote healthy eating behaviors and lifestyle habits among patients and the community through health promotion activities, educational programs, and community outreach initiatives. They may participate in initiatives aimed at addressing food insecurity, promoting breastfeeding, preventing childhood obesity, and raising awareness of nutrition-related health issues.
🔸3) Preservation and storage of food.
ANSWER:- Preservation and storage of food are essential practices to maintain food safety, prevent spoilage, and prolong the shelf life of perishable items. Several methods are employed to preserve and store food effectively:
1.Refrigeration Refrigeration is one of the most common methods of food preservation. It slows down the growth of bacteria and other microorganisms that cause food spoilage by keeping food at temperatures below 40°F (4°C). Perishable items such as meat, dairy products, fruits, and vegetables should be stored in the refrigerator to maintain freshness and prevent spoilage.
2.Freezing Freezing is another effective method of food preservation, as it halts the growth of microorganisms and enzymes that cause food to spoil. It involves storing food at temperatures below 0°F (-18°C) to maintain quality and extend shelf life. Frozen foods should be properly packaged to prevent freezer burn and maintain flavor and texture.
3.Canning Canning involves heat-processing food in jars or cans to kill bacteria and create a vacuum seal that prevents spoilage. It is commonly used for preserving fruits, vegetables, meats, and soups. High-acid foods like tomatoes and fruits can be safely processed using a boiling water canner, while low-acid foods like meats and vegetables require a pressure canner to ensure food safety.
4.Drying/Dehydrating Drying or dehydrating involves removing moisture from food to inhibit the growth of bacteria and mold. It can be done using a food dehydrator, oven, or air-drying methods. Dried foods, such as fruits, vegetables, herbs, and jerky, have a long shelf life and can be stored at room temperature in airtight containers.
5.Pickling Pickling involves preserving food by immersing it in a solution of vinegar, salt, and spices. The acidic environment created by the vinegar inhibits the growth of bacteria and extends the shelf life of fruits and vegetables. Pickled foods, such as cucumbers (pickles), beets, onions, and peppers, can be stored in jars in the refrigerator for several weeks or canned for long-term storage.
6.Fermentation Fermentation is a natural process that preserves food by converting sugars into alcohol or organic acids using beneficial bacteria or yeast. Fermented foods, such as yogurt, sauerkraut, kimchi, and kombucha, contain probiotics and have an extended shelf life when stored in the refrigerator.
7.Vacuum Packaging Vacuum packaging involves removing air from a package before sealing it, creating a vacuum seal that prevents the growth of spoilage microorganisms. It is commonly used for packaging perishable items like meats, cheeses, and cooked foods to extend shelf life and maintain freshness.
8.Storage in Airtight Containers Storing food in airtight containers helps prevent exposure to moisture, air, and contaminants, which can cause food spoilage and deterioration. Dry goods like grains, flour, pasta, and cereals should be stored in airtight containers in a cool, dry place to maintain quality and prevent pest infestations.
🔸4) Classification of foods.
ANSWER:- Foods can be classified in various ways based on different criteria such as nutrient content, food group, processing methods, and cultural significance. Here are some common classifications of foods:
1.Nutrient Content
Macronutrients Foods can be classified based on their macronutrient content, including carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
Micronutrients Foods can also be classified based on their micronutrient content, including vitamins and minerals.
2.Food Group Fruits and Vegetables
This category includes a wide variety of fruits and vegetables, which are rich sources of vitamins, minerals, fiber, and antioxidants.
Grains Grains such as wheat, rice, oats, and barley are staple foods that provide carbohydrates, fiber, and some essential nutrients.
Protein Foods Protein-rich foods include meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products, legumes, nuts, and seeds.
Dairy Dairy products like milk, yogurt, cheese, and alternative dairy products provide calcium, protein, and other essential nutrients.
Fats and Oils Fats and oils include sources of dietary fats such as butter, olive oil, coconut oil, and avocado.
3.Processing Methods
Whole Foods Whole foods are minimally processed or unprocessed foods that are close to their natural state, such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, and seeds.
Processed Foods Processed foods have undergone processing to enhance flavor, texture, or shelf life, such as canned vegetables, frozen meals, and packaged snacks.
Ultra-Processed Foods Ultra-processed foods are highly processed products that contain additives, preservatives, and artificial ingredients, such as sugary drinks, packaged snacks, and fast food.
4.Cultural Significance
Ethnic Foods Ethnic foods represent the culinary traditions and cuisines of specific cultures or regions, such as Italian, Mexican, Indian, Chinese, and Middle Eastern cuisines.
Traditional Foods Traditional foods are dishes and recipes passed down through generations within a particular culture or community, often reflecting cultural heritage and culinary practices.
5.Functional Foods
Functional Foods Functional foods are foods that provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition, such as fortified foods, probiotics, prebiotics, and foods with added antioxidants or omega-3 fatty acids.
6.Dietary Preferences
Vegetarian Vegetarian foods exclude meat, poultry, and fish but may include dairy products, eggs, and plant-based protein sources like legumes, tofu, and tempeh.
Vegan Vegan foods exclude all animal products, including meat, poultry, fish, dairy, eggs, and honey, and consist entirely of plant-based foods.
These classifications provide a framework for understanding the diversity of foods available and their nutritional characteristics, cultural significance, and dietary implications. They can help individuals make informed food choices that align with their nutritional needs, health goals, and personal preferences.
🔸5) Nutritional Programmes in India.
ANSWER:- India has several nutritional programs aimed at addressing various aspects of malnutrition and improving the nutritional status of its population, especially among vulnerable groups such as children, pregnant women, and lactating mothers. Some key nutritional programs in India include:
1.Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS)
ICDS is one of the world’s largest and most comprehensive programs for early childhood development and nutrition.
It provides a package of services including supplementary nutrition, immunization, health check-ups, and pre-school education to children under 6 years of age, as well as pregnant and lactating mothers.
ICDS aims to prevent malnutrition, promote healthy growth and development, and empower women through nutrition education and counseling.
2.National Health Mission (NHM)
NHM includes various components aimed at improving maternal and child health, including nutrition interventions.
Under NHM, the Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK) focuses on adolescent health and nutrition, addressing issues such as anemia, malnutrition, and reproductive health.
3.Mid-Day Meal Scheme (MDMS)
MDMS is a school meal program that aims to improve the nutritional status of children and encourage school attendance.
It provides free, cooked meals to children in government and government-aided schools across India, covering primary and upper primary classes.
MDMS aims to address hunger, malnutrition, and social inequality by providing nutritious meals to children from disadvantaged backgrounds.
4.National Food Security Act (NFSA)
NFSA aims to provide subsidized food grains to eligible households through the Public Distribution System (PDS).
It guarantees food security by ensuring access to food grains at affordable prices, especially for vulnerable groups such as Below Poverty Line (BPL) families, pregnant women, and lactating mothers.
5.Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY)
PMMVY is a maternity benefit program that provides financial assistance to pregnant and lactating women for their first live birth.
It aims to reduce maternal and child mortality rates by promoting institutional delivery, ensuring proper nutrition during pregnancy and lactation, and supporting early childhood care and development.
6.Anemia Mukt Bharat (AMB)
AMB is a national program aimed at reducing the prevalence of anemia among women and children.
It focuses on prevention, screening, and treatment of anemia through interventions such as iron and folic acid supplementation, dietary diversification, and behavior change communication.
These nutritional programs in India reflect the government’s commitment to addressing the multifaceted challenges of malnutrition and improving the health and well-being of its population, especially women and children. However, there are still challenges in implementation, coverage, and monitoring that need to be addressed to ensure the effectiveness and sustainability of these programs.
⏩Q:3 Answer the following questions (Any five)10
🔸1) List out Sources of iron.
ANSWER:- Iron is an essential mineral that plays a crucial role in various physiological processes, including oxygen transport, energy metabolism, and DNA synthesis. Including iron-rich foods in your diet is important to prevent iron deficiency anemia and maintain overall health. Here are some common sources of iron:
1.Red Meat Red meat, such as beef, lamb, and pork, is one of the richest sources of heme iron, which is more easily absorbed by the body compared to non-heme iron found in plant-based foods.
2.Poultry Poultry, including chicken and turkey, is another good source of heme iron. Consuming lean cuts of poultry can provide a significant amount of iron.
3.Seafood Certain types of seafood are rich in heme iron, including shellfish like oysters, clams, and mussels, as well as fish like sardines, tuna, and salmon.
4.Organ Meats Organ meats such as liver, kidneys, and heart are highly concentrated sources of heme iron and other nutrients like vitamin B12 and folate.
5.Beans and Lentils Legumes like lentils, chickpeas, black beans, kidney beans, and soybeans are excellent sources of non-heme iron. They are also rich in fiber, protein, and other essential nutrients.
6.Tofu Tofu, a soy-based food, is a good plant-based source of iron, especially if it’s made with iron-rich coagulants like calcium sulfate or magnesium chloride.
7.Quinoa Quinoa is a gluten-free whole grain that contains a significant amount of iron, along with protein, fiber, and other nutrients.
8.Dark Leafy Greens Dark leafy greens such as spinach, kale, Swiss chard, collard greens, and beet greens are rich sources of non-heme iron and other vitamins and minerals.
9.Fortified Foods Many foods are fortified with iron to help prevent iron deficiency, including fortified breakfast cereals, bread, pasta, and rice.
10.Nuts and Seeds Certain nuts and seeds, such as pumpkin seeds, sesame seeds, pine nuts, cashews, and almonds, are good sources of non-heme iron and provide additional health benefits.
🔸2) List out sources of protein.
ANSWER:-
1.Meat
Beef
Pork
Lamb
Venison
Bison
2.Poultry
Chicken
Turkey
Duck
Goose
3.Seafood
Salmon
Tuna
Trout
Cod
Shrimp
Crab
Lobster
Mussels
Oysters
4.Eggs
Chicken eggs
Quail eggs
Duck eggs
5.Dairy Products
Milk
Cheese (cheddar, mozzarella, feta, etc.)
Yogurt
Cottage cheese
Greek yogurt
6.Plant-Based Sources
Legumes (beans, lentils, chickpeas)
Tofu
Tempeh
Edamame
Seitan
Quinoa
Soy milk
Peas (green peas, split peas)
Lentils
7.Nuts and Seeds
Almonds
Walnuts
Pistachios
Cashews
Peanuts
Chia seeds
Flaxseeds
Hemp seeds
Pumpkin seeds
Sunflower seeds
8.Grains and Pseudocereals
Quinoa
Amaranth
Buckwheat
Farro
Bulgur
Wheat berries
Oats
9.Vegetables
Spinach
Broccoli
Brussels sprouts
Asparagus
Artichokes
10.Soy Products
Tempeh
Tofu
Edamame
Soy milk
Soy yogurt
Incorporating a variety of these protein sources into your diet can help ensure that you’re meeting your daily protein needs and maintaining overall health. It’s important to note that protein needs may vary depending on factors such as age, gender, activity level, and overall health status. If you have specific dietary requirements or health concerns, consider consulting with a healthcare professional or registered dietitian for personalized nutrition advice.
🔸3) Functions of fat.
ANSWER:- Fats play several important roles in the body and are essential for overall health. Here are some key functions of fats:
1.Energy Storage Fats serve as a concentrated source of energy, providing more than twice the amount of calories per gram compared to carbohydrates and proteins. They are stored in adipose tissue and can be broken down and converted into energy when needed.
2.Insulation and Temperature Regulation Fats help insulate the body and maintain core body temperature by providing a layer of insulation under the skin. This is especially important in cold environments to prevent heat loss and maintain warmth.
3.Cellular Structure Fats are structural components of cell membranes, helping to maintain their integrity and fluidity. They play a role in regulating what substances can enter and exit cells, as well as facilitating cell signaling and communication.
4.Hormone Production Fats are precursors to various hormones and signaling molecules, including steroid hormones like testosterone, estrogen, and cortisol. These hormones play key roles in regulating metabolism, growth, reproduction, and stress response.
5.Absorption of Fat-Soluble Vitamins Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) require dietary fats for absorption in the intestine. Fats form micelles that transport these vitamins across the intestinal lining into the bloodstream, where they can be utilized by the body.
6.Brain Health Fats, particularly omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, are critical for brain function and development. They are important structural components of brain cell membranes and play a role in neurotransmitter function, cognition, and mood regulation.
7.Nerve Function Fats are essential for the proper functioning of nerves and nerve cells. Myelin, a fatty substance that surrounds nerve fibers, acts as an insulator and facilitates the transmission of nerve impulses throughout the body.
8.Protection of Organs Adipose tissue serves as a protective cushion around vital organs like the kidneys, heart, and liver, helping to absorb shock and prevent injury.
9.Flavor and Texture Fats contribute to the flavor, aroma, and texture of foods, enhancing palatability and satiety. They also help carry fat-soluble flavor compounds and contribute to the mouthfeel of foods.
10.Long-Term Satiety Including healthy fats in meals can help promote feelings of fullness and satiety, which may aid in weight management by reducing overall food intake and preventing overeating.
🔸4) BMI and BMR
ANSWER:- BMI (Body Mass Index) and BMR (Basal Metabolic Rate) are two commonly used measurements related to body composition and metabolism.
1.BMI (Body Mass Index)
BMI is a numerical value calculated based on a person’s height and weight. It is used as an indicator of body fatness and helps categorize individuals into different weight categories.
The formula for calculating BMI is:
BMI = weight (kg) / (height (m))^2
BMI categories typically include:
Underweight: BMI less than 18.5
Normal weight: BMI between 18.5 and 24.9
Overweight: BMI between 25 and 29.9
Obesity: BMI 30 or higher
While BMI is a useful screening tool for assessing weight status at the population level, it does not directly measure body fat percentage or distribution. Therefore, it may not be accurate for certain individuals, such as athletes with higher muscle mass.
2.BMR (Basal Metabolic Rate)
BMR is the amount of energy expended by the body at rest to maintain basic physiological functions such as breathing, circulation, and cell production.
BMR is influenced by factors such as age, gender, body composition, and genetics.
The Harris-Benedict equation is commonly used to estimate BMR:
For men: BMR = 88.362 + (13.397 × weight in kg) + (4.799 × height in cm) – (5.677 × age in years)
For women: BMR = 447.593 + (9.247 × weight in kg) + (3.098 × height in cm) – (4.330 × age in years)
BMR is typically expressed in calories per day. It represents the minimum amount of energy required for bodily functions while at rest.
Total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) includes BMR along with additional calories expended through physical activity and the thermic effect of food.
Both BMI and BMR are useful tools for assessing and understanding aspects of body composition and metabolism. However, they serve different purposes: BMI provides an indication of overall weight status, while BMR reflects the body’s energy needs at rest. It’s important to interpret these measurements in conjunction with other factors such as body composition, lifestyle, and health status for a comprehensive understanding of an individual’s health and metabolic profile.
🔸5) Food Standards in India.
ANSWER:- In India, food standards are established and regulated by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI), which is an autonomous body under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. The FSSAI is responsible for ensuring food safety, hygiene, and quality throughout the food supply chain, from production to consumption. Here are some key aspects of food standards in India:
1.Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (FSS Act)
The FSS Act is the primary legislation governing food safety and standards in India. It establishes the legal framework for regulating food safety, setting standards, and enforcing compliance with food safety requirements.
The FSS Act aims to ensure the availability of safe, wholesome, and hygienic food for human consumption and to protect public health from foodborne illnesses and hazards.
2.Food Safety and Standards (FSS) Regulations
The FSS Regulations prescribe standards and guidelines for various aspects of food safety, including hygiene practices, food additives, contaminants, labeling, packaging, and licensing of food businesses.
These regulations are periodically updated and revised to align with international standards and best practices, ensuring that food safety requirements are in line with global norms.
3.Food Standards and Specifications
The FSSAI sets food standards and specifications for different categories of food products, including processed foods, dairy products, meat and poultry products, fruits and vegetables, beverages, and packaged drinking water.
These standards specify the permissible limits of contaminants, additives, preservatives, and other substances in food products, as well as labeling requirements and nutritional information.
4.Food Safety and Quality Assurance
The FSSAI is responsible for implementing measures to ensure compliance with food safety standards and quality assurance practices throughout the food supply chain.
This includes inspection, surveillance, sampling, testing, and certification of food products, as well as licensing and registration of food businesses, food establishments, and food handlers.
5.Consumer Awareness and Education
The FSSAI conducts public awareness campaigns and educational initiatives to promote consumer awareness about food safety, hygiene, and healthy eating practices.
It provides information and resources to consumers, food businesses, and other stakeholders through various channels, including websites, publications, and outreach programs.
6.International Collaboration
The FSSAI collaborates with international organizations and regulatory agencies to harmonize food standards, exchange information, and enhance capacity-building efforts in food safety and quality management.
India participates in international forums such as the Codex Alimentarius Commission to contribute to the development of global food standards and ensure the compatibility of Indian food regulations with international norms.
🔸6) List out types of diet.
ANSWER:-There are numerous types of diets that people may follow for various reasons, including weight management, health concerns, ethical beliefs, cultural preferences, and personal preferences. Here are some common types of diets:
1.Mediterranean Diet
Based on the traditional eating patterns of countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea.
Emphasizes fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, olive oil, fish, and moderate consumption of poultry and dairy.
Includes limited intake of red meat and sweets.
2.Vegetarian Diet
Excludes meat, poultry, and seafood.
May include dairy products and eggs (lacto-ovo vegetarian), dairy but no eggs (lacto-vegetarian), or no animal products at all (vegan).
3.Vegan Diet
Excludes all animal products, including meat, poultry, seafood, dairy, eggs, and honey.
Relies on plant-based foods such as fruits, vegetables, grains, legumes, nuts, and seeds.
4.Paleo Diet
Based on the presumed dietary patterns of Paleolithic humans.
Emphasizes foods that would have been available to hunter-gatherers, including meat, fish, poultry, fruits, vegetables, nuts, and seeds.
Excludes grains, legumes, dairy, processed foods, and refined sugars.
5.Ketogenic Diet (Keto)
High-fat, low-carbohydrate diet that induces a state of ketosis, where the body burns fat for fuel instead of carbohydrates.
Includes foods like meat, fatty fish, eggs, cheese, nuts, seeds, oils, and non-starchy vegetables.
Limits carbohydrates, including grains, fruits, starchy vegetables, and sugars.
6.Low-Carb Diet
Restricts carbohydrates, often with varying degrees of restriction.
May include foods like meat, poultry, fish, eggs, non-starchy vegetables, nuts, seeds, and healthy fats.
Limits or excludes high-carbohydrate foods like grains, legumes, fruits, and sugars.
7.DASH Diet (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension)
Designed to lower blood pressure and reduce the risk of heart disease.
Emphasizes fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and low-fat dairy.
Limits sodium, saturated fats, red meat, sweets, and sugary beverages.
8.Flexitarian Diet Flexible approach to vegetarianism that includes occasional consumption of meat, poultry, or fish.
Emphasizes plant-based foods but allows for flexibility and occasional inclusion of animal products.
9.Gluten-Free Diet Eliminates gluten, a protein found in wheat, barley, rye, and their derivatives.
Necessary for individuals with celiac disease or gluten sensitivity.
Includes naturally gluten-free foods like fruits, vegetables, grains (rice, quinoa, corn), nuts, seeds, and gluten-free grains and flours.
10.Low-FODMAP Diet Reduces intake of certain fermentable carbohydrates (FODMAPs) to manage symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and other gastrointestinal disorders.
Restricts foods high in FODMAPs such as certain fruits, vegetables, grains, dairy products, and sweeteners.
⏩SECTION-II (BIOCHEMISTRY)⏪
⏩Q.4 Answer the following question (Any one)
🔸1) Define Glycolysis and explain Glycolysis cycle in detail.
ANSWER:- Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that occurs in the cytoplasm of cells and is the initial step in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration. It involves the breakdown of glucose, a six-carbon sugar molecule, into two molecules of pyruvate, a three-carbon compound. Glycolysis is a central pathway in cellular metabolism and plays a key role in generating energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
Here’s an overview of the glycolysis cycle:
1.Glucose Phosphorylation The first step of glycolysis involves the phosphorylation of glucose to form glucose-6-phosphate. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme hexokinase, and it requires the input of one molecule of ATP, which is hydrolyzed to ADP during the process.
2.Isomerization Glucose-6-phosphate is converted to fructose-6-phosphate through an isomerization reaction catalyzed by the enzyme phosphoglucose isomerase.
3.Second Phosphorylation Fructose-6-phosphate is phosphorylated to form fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1) and requires the input of one molecule of ATP, which is hydrolyzed to ADP.
4.Cleavage Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is cleaved into two three-carbon molecules: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) and dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP). This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme aldolase.
5.Isomerization Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) is converted into another molecule of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) through an isomerization reaction catalyzed by the enzyme triose phosphate isomerase. As a result, both DHAP and G3P are converted into two molecules of G3P.
6.Energy Harvesting Each molecule of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) undergoes a series of oxidation and phosphorylation reactions, resulting in the formation of two molecules of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. These reactions involve the transfer of electrons to NAD+ to form NADH and the generation of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
7.Formation of Pyruvate The final steps of glycolysis involve the conversion of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate into 3-phosphoglycerate and then into 2-phosphoglycerate, followed by the removal of a phosphate group to form phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). Finally, pyruvate kinase catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from PEP to ADP, resulting in the formation of ATP and pyruvate.
🔸2) Write in detail about synthesis and breakdown of Haem.
ANSWER:- Heme is an essential molecule found in hemoglobin, myoglobin, and various other proteins in the body. It consists of a complex organic structure called a porphyrin ring, which contains a central iron atom. Heme synthesis, also known as porphyrin synthesis, involves a series of enzymatic reactions that occur primarily in the liver and bone marrow. Here’s an overview of the synthesis and breakdown of heme:
Synthesis of Heme (Porphyrin Synthesis):
1.Initial Steps Heme synthesis begins in the mitochondria with the condensation of succinyl-CoA and glycine to form delta-aminolevulinic acid (ALA). This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme ALA synthase.
ALA is then transported into the cytoplasm, where two molecules of ALA undergo a series of enzymatic reactions to form porphobilinogen (PBG). These reactions involve the enzymes ALA dehydratase and porphobilinogen deaminase.
2.Formation of Porphyrinogens Four molecules of porphobilinogen (PBG) undergo condensation and subsequent reduction to form hydroxymethylbilane (HMB), also known as preuroporphyrinogen. These reactions are catalyzed by the enzyme hydroxymethylbilane synthase.
3.Conversion to Porphyrins Hydroxymethylbilane (HMB) undergoes further enzymatic reactions to form uroporphyrinogen III, which is then decarboxylated to form coproporphyrinogen III. These reactions involve a series of enzymes including uroporphyrinogen III synthase and uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase.
4.Formation of Protoporphyrin IX Coproporphyrinogen III is transported into the mitochondria, where it undergoes decarboxylation and oxidation to form protoporphyrinogen IX. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme coproporphyrinogen oxidase.
5.Insertion of Iron Protoporphyrinogen IX is transported back into the cytoplasm, where it undergoes the final step of heme synthesis: the insertion of iron to form protoporphyrin IX. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme ferrochelatase.
6.Formation of Heme Protoporphyrin IX with iron inserted becomes heme. Heme can then bind to globin chains to form hemoglobin or myoglobin, or it can be incorporated into other heme-containing proteins in the body.
Breakdown of Heme: The breakdown of heme primarily occurs in the reticuloendothelial system (mainly in the spleen), where old or damaged red blood cells are phagocytosed by macrophages. The breakdown of heme involves the following steps:
1.Heme Oxygenase Reaction Heme is oxidized by the enzyme heme oxygenase to form biliverdin, carbon monoxide, and ferrous iron. This reaction occurs in the presence of oxygen and NADPH.
Biliverdin is then reduced to bilirubin by the enzyme biliverdin reductase.
2.Excretion of Bilirubin Bilirubin is released from the macrophages and transported to the liver, where it undergoes conjugation with glucuronic acid to form water-soluble bilirubin glucuronides (conjugated bilirubin).
Conjugated bilirubin is then excreted into the bile and eliminated from the body through feces.
Clinical Significance: Disruptions in heme synthesis or breakdown can lead to various disorders, including porphyrias (inherited or acquired disorders of heme biosynthesis) and hemolytic anemias (conditions characterized by the premature destruction of red blood cells). Understanding the pathways of heme synthesis and breakdown is important for the diagnosis and management of these disorders, as well as for elucidating the mechanisms underlying normal and pathological erythropoiesis.
⏩Q.5 Write short notes on: (Any two)10
🔸1) Electrophoresis.
ANSWER:- Electrophoresis is a laboratory technique used to separate molecules based on their size, charge, and mobility in an electric field. It is commonly used in biochemistry, molecular biology, and clinical diagnostics for analyzing and characterizing proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and other biomolecules.
Principle of Electrophoresis: The principle of electrophoresis relies on the movement of charged molecules in an electric field. When an electric current is applied across a gel or other supporting medium containing the sample to be analyzed, charged molecules within the sample migrate toward the oppositely charged electrode.
Types of Electrophoresis:
1.Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (PAGE)
PAGE is widely used for separating proteins based on their molecular weight.
It involves the polymerization of acrylamide and bisacrylamide to form a porous gel matrix through which proteins migrate.
Proteins are typically denatured and treated with SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate) to impart a uniform negative charge and remove secondary and tertiary structures before electrophoresis.
2.Agarose Gel Electrophoresis
Agarose gel electrophoresis is used for separating nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA based on their size.
Agarose, a polysaccharide derived from seaweed, forms a gel matrix that provides a sieve-like structure through which nucleic acid molecules migrate.
The migration of nucleic acids through the gel is influenced by the size and shape of the molecules.
3.Capillary Electrophoresis (CE)
Capillary electrophoresis involves the separation of charged molecules in a narrow capillary tube filled with a buffer solution.
It offers high resolution and rapid separation of analytes and is commonly used for analyzing DNA sequencing, DNA fragment analysis, and protein analysis.
4.Isoelectric Focusing (IEF)
IEF separates molecules based on their isoelectric point (pI), which is the pH at which a molecule carries no net electrical charge.
Molecules migrate toward the electrode until they reach a pH gradient within the gel where their net charge is zero.
IEF is commonly used for separating proteins, peptides, and amino acids based on their pI values.
Applications of Electrophoresis:
Protein Analysis
Determination of protein size, purity, and quantity; identification of protein isoforms and post-translational modifications.
Nucleic Acid Analysis
Separation of DNA fragments for DNA sequencing, restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) product analysis, and RNA analysis.
Clinical Diagnostics
Detection and quantification of biomarkers, analysis of serum proteins and lipoproteins, identification of genetic mutations, and characterization of hemoglobin variants.
Forensic Science
DNA profiling and analysis of genetic markers for forensic identification and paternity testing.
Drug Discovery and Development
Screening and characterization of protein-protein interactions, protein-ligand interactions, and enzyme activity.
🔸2) Urea cycle
ANSWER:- The urea cycle, also known as the ornithine cycle, is a series of biochemical reactions that occur in the liver and some other tissues to remove excess nitrogen from the body in the form of urea. It is the primary mechanism for disposing of toxic ammonia, which is produced during the breakdown of proteins and amino acids. The urea cycle takes place primarily in the mitochondria and cytoplasm of liver cells and involves several enzymes and intermediates. Here’s an overview of the urea cycle:
1.Formation of Carbamoyl Phosphate
The urea cycle begins with the condensation of ammonia (NH3) with carbon dioxide (CO2) and ATP to form carbamoyl phosphate. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I (CPS I), which is located in the mitochondria.
The ammonia used in this reaction is derived from the deamination of amino acids or from other sources of ammonia in the body.
2.Formation of Citrulline
Carbamoyl phosphate combines with ornithine, a non-protein amino acid, to form citrulline. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC).
Citrulline is then transported out of the mitochondria and into the cytoplasm of the cell.
3.Formation of Argininosuccinate:
Citrulline reacts with aspartate in the cytoplasm to form argininosuccinate. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme argininosuccinate synthetase.
The formation of argininosuccinate involves the transfer of the amino group from aspartate to citrulline.
4.Formation of Arginine
Argininosuccinate is then cleaved into arginine and fumarate by the enzyme argininosuccinate lyase.
The release of fumarate from argininosuccinate leaves arginine as the end product of this reaction.
5.Formation of Urea
Arginine undergoes hydrolysis by the enzyme arginase to form urea and ornithine.
Urea is released into the bloodstream and transported to the kidneys for excretion in the urine.
Ornithine is transported back into the mitochondria to participate in another round of the urea cycle.
Regulation of the Urea Cycle: The rate of the urea cycle is primarily controlled by the availability of ammonia and the activity of key enzymes such as CPS I and OTC.
The activity of CPS I is allosterically regulated by N-acetylglutamate (NAG), which is synthesized from glutamate and acetyl-CoA. NAG activates CPS I in response to increased levels of ammonia and the need for urea synthesis.
The urea cycle is also regulated at the transcriptional level by hormones such as glucagon and insulin, which regulate the expression of urea cycle enzymes in response to changes in metabolic conditions.
Clinical Significance: Disorders of the urea cycle, such as deficiencies in any of the enzymes involved or defects in the transporters that shuttle intermediates across cellular membranes, can lead to hyperammonemia, a condition characterized by elevated levels of ammonia in the blood.
Hyperammonemia can cause neurological symptoms, liver damage, and even coma if left untreated. Management of urea cycle disorders typically involves dietary restrictions, medications to remove excess ammonia, and sometimes liver transplantation.
🔸3) Protein Metabolism.
ANSWER:- Protein metabolism refers to the biochemical processes involved in the synthesis (anabolism) and breakdown (catabolism) of proteins within the body. Proteins are essential macromolecules composed of amino acids, and they serve a wide range of functions, including structural support, enzyme catalysis, immune defense, hormone regulation, and transport of molecules.
Anabolism (Protein Synthesis):
1.Transcription The process of protein synthesis begins with the transcription of DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA) in the nucleus of the cell. This process is mediated by RNA polymerase and involves the complementary base pairing of nucleotides.
2.Translation mRNA is transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where it serves as a template for protein synthesis on ribosomes.
During translation, amino acids are brought to the ribosome by transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, which recognize specific codons on the mRNA.
Ribosomes catalyze the formation of peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids, leading to the synthesis of a polypeptide chain according to the sequence of codons on the mRNA.
3.Protein Folding and Modification Newly synthesized polypeptide chains undergo folding into their native three-dimensional structures with the assistance of chaperone proteins.
Post-translational modifications such as phosphorylation, glycosylation, acetylation, and cleavage may occur to regulate protein function and localization.
Catabolism (Protein Breakdown):
1.Proteolysis Proteolysis is the enzymatic cleavage of peptide bonds within proteins, leading to the breakdown of polypeptide chains into smaller peptides and amino acids.
Proteases, including endopeptidases and exopeptidases, catalyze proteolysis and are responsible for the degradation of proteins.
2.Amino Acid Degradation Amino acids released during proteolysis undergo degradation to produce energy or to serve as precursors for the synthesis of other molecules.
Amino acids can be converted into intermediates of the citric acid cycle or into glucose through gluconeogenesis.
The amine group (-NH2) of amino acids is removed through transamination or deamination reactions, yielding ammonia (NH3) or ammonium ions (NH4+), which are ultimately converted into urea in the liver through the urea cycle.
Regulation of Protein Metabolism: Protein metabolism is tightly regulated to maintain protein homeostasis and meet the body’s metabolic demands.
Regulation occurs at multiple levels, including transcriptional control of gene expression, post-translational modifications, and allosteric regulation of metabolic enzymes.
Hormones such as insulin, glucagon, growth hormone, cortisol, and thyroid hormones play key roles in regulating protein metabolism by influencing protein synthesis, degradation, and amino acid metabolism.y
Clinical Significance: Imbalances in protein metabolism can contribute to various health conditions, including malnutrition, muscle wasting, metabolic disorders, and certain diseases.
Disorders of protein metabolism, such as inborn errors of metabolism or urea cycle disorders, can lead to abnormal accumulation of amino acids or toxic metabolites and may require dietary modifications, medications, or other interventions for management.
⏩Q.6 Answer the following questions (Any Five)10
🔸1) Functions of Lysosomes.
ANSWER:- Lysosomes are organelles responsible for cellular digestion, waste removal, and recycling. They contain enzymes that break down macromolecules. Functions include intracellular digestion, autophagy, waste removal, cellular remodeling, immune response, and calcium homeostasis. Dysfunctions can lead to lysosomal storage disorders and other diseases.
🔸2) Types of immunoglobulins
ANSWER:- 1.IgA (Immunoglobulin A)
Predominantly found in mucosal secretions such as saliva, tears, and breast milk.
Plays a crucial role in mucosal immunity by preventing pathogens from adhering to mucosal surfaces and neutralizing toxins.
2.IgD (Immunoglobulin D)
Found in low concentrations in the blood and on the surface of B cells.
Functions as a receptor for antigen recognition on the surface of B cells, participating in the activation of the immune response.
3.IgE (Immunoglobulin E)
Primarily involved in allergic responses and defense against parasitic infections.
Binds to mast cells and basophils, triggering the release of histamine and other inflammatory mediators in response to allergens.
4.IgG (Immunoglobulin G)
The most abundant antibody in the blood and extracellular fluid.
Plays a central role in the adaptive immune response by neutralizing pathogens, enhancing phagocytosis, and activating the complement system.
5.IgM (Immunoglobulin M)
Found mainly in the blood and lymphatic system.
Serves as the first antibody produced during an initial immune response to an infection, acting as an efficient antigen receptor and activating complement cascade.
🔸3) Importance of Bio chemistry in nursing.
ANSWER:- 1.Understanding Normal Physiology
Biochemistry helps nurses understand the normal biochemical processes that occur in the human body, including metabolism, cell signaling, and molecular interactions. This knowledge is essential for assessing patients’ health status, interpreting laboratory tests, and identifying deviations from normal physiology.
2.Interpreting Diagnostic Tests
Nurses frequently encounter diagnostic tests that rely on biochemical principles to assess patients’ health status. Understanding biochemistry enables nurses to interpret laboratory results such as blood glucose levels, electrolyte concentrations, liver function tests, and lipid profiles, helping them identify abnormalities and guide patient care.
3.Medication Management
Many medications used in clinical practice act by modulating biochemical pathways and targets within the body. Nurses need a basic understanding of biochemistry to administer medications safely, monitor for adverse effects, and educate patients about their medications’ mechanisms of action and therapeutic effects.
4.Nutritional Support
Biochemistry underpins the principles of nutrition and metabolism, which are essential components of nursing care. Nurses play a critical role in assessing patients’ nutritional status, providing dietary counseling, and administering enteral or parenteral nutrition support. Knowledge of biochemistry helps nurses understand nutrient metabolism, energy requirements, and the biochemical basis of nutritional deficiencies and disorders.
5.Clinical Decision-Making
Nurses often encounter complex clinical scenarios that require critical thinking and problem-solving skills. A solid foundation in biochemistry enables nurses to make informed clinical decisions, prioritize patient care needs, and collaborate effectively with other healthcare professionals to optimize patient outcomes.
6.Patient Education
Nurses serve as educators, empowering patients and their families to participate in their healthcare and make informed decisions about their treatment options. Understanding biochemistry allows nurses to communicate complex medical concepts in a clear and understandable manner, helping patients adhere to treatment regimens and adopt healthy lifestyle behaviors.
🔸4) Functions of Calcium.
ANSWER:-
calcium performs the following key functions in the body:
1.Bone Health Calcium is a major component of bones and teeth, providing structural strength and integrity.
2.Muscle Contraction Calcium ions are essential for muscle contraction, enabling movement and physical activity.
3.Nerve Function Calcium regulates nerve impulses, facilitating communication between nerve cells and controlling various physiological processes.
4.Blood Clotting Calcium plays a crucial role in the blood clotting process, helping to stop bleeding and promote wound healing.
5.Cell Signaling Calcium ions serve as important signaling molecules within cells, regulating enzyme activity, gene expression, and cellular processes.
🔸5) Sources of vitamin A
ANSWER:- Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin that plays crucial roles in vision, immune function, and cell growth and differentiation. It exists in two main forms in the diet: preformed vitamin A (retinoids) and provitamin A carotenoids. Here are some common food sources of vitamin A:
1.Preformed Vitamin A (Retinoids)
Liver (especially beef liver)
Fish liver oils (such as cod liver oil)
Egg yolks
Dairy products (milk, cheese, butter)
Fortified foods (such as fortified breakfast cereals, margarine, and milk)
2.Provitamin A Carotenoids
Orange and yellow fruits and vegetables:
Carrots
Sweet potatoes
Pumpkin
Butternut squash
Cantaloupe
Mango
Dark green leafy vegetables:
Spinach
Kale
Swiss chard
Collard greens
Red and orange vegetables:
Red bell peppers
Tomatoes
Red cabbage
In the body, provitamin A carotenoids such as beta-carotene can be converted into active vitamin A (retinol) as needed. Consuming a varied diet rich in these foods can help ensure an adequate intake of vitamin A to support overall health and well-being.
🔸6) Define co-enzyme.
ANSWER:-Coenzymes are organic molecules that work in conjunction with enzymes to facilitate enzymatic reactions within cells. They are essential for the proper functioning of many metabolic pathways in the body. Coenzymes often act as carriers of specific functional groups or electrons, serving as cofactors that enable enzymes to catalyze biochemical reactions more efficiently. Unlike enzymes, which are typically proteins, coenzymes are non-protein organic molecules, often derived from vitamins or other nutrients. Coenzymes are not permanently altered or consumed during the catalytic process but are recycled and used repeatedly in various enzymatic reactions. Examples of coenzymes include NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide), coenzyme A, and ATP (adenosine triphosphate).